The Theory and Conduct of War

전쟁이론과 전쟁수행

2 THE INSTITUTION OF WAR

• 2.1 Theory of war
  • 2.1.1 EVOLUTION OF THEORIES OF WAR
  • 2.1.2 THE CAUSES OF WAR
    • 2.1.2.1 Biological theories.
      • 2.1.2.1.1 Ethology.
      • 2.1.2.1.2 Psychology.
    • 2.1.2.2 Social theories.
      • 2.1.2.2.1 Liberal analyses.
      • 2.1.2.2.2 Socialist analyses.
      • 2.1.2.2.3 Nationalism.
      • 2.1.2.2.4 Special-interest groups.
  • 2.1.3 THE CONTROL OF WAR
    • 2.1.3.1 Diplomacy.
    • 2.1.3.2 Regional integration.
    • 2.1.3.3 International law.
    • 2.1.3.4 The United Nations.
      • 2.1.3.4.1 Peaceful settlement of disputes.
      • 2.1.3.4.2 Collective security.
      • 2.1.3.4.3 Disarmament.
      • 2.1.3.4.4 Limiting conflict.
    • 2.1.3.5 World government.
• 2.2 Law of war
  • 2.2.1 ROOTS OF THE INTERNATIONAL LAW OF WAR
    • 2.2.1.1 Law by treaty.
    • 2.2.1.2 Law by custom.
  • 2.2.2 COMMENCING HOSTILITIES
    • 2.2.2.1 Legally defining war.
      • 2.2.2.1.1 Aggression.
      • 2.2.2.1.2 Self-defense.
    • 2.2.2.2 International and internal conflicts.
      • 2.2.2.2.1 Regional action.
      • 2.2.2.2.2 War by proxy.
      • 2.2.2.2.3 Civil war.
      • 2.2.2.2.4 War of national liberation.
  • 2.2.3 CONDUCTING HOSTILITIES
    • 2.2.3.1 Lawful combatants.
    • 2.2.3.2 Limits on the methods and means of war.
      • 2.2.3.2.1 Weapons.
      • 2.2.3.2.2 Civilians.
      • 2.2.3.2.3 Neutrals.
      • 2.2.3.2.4 Prohibited areas of combat.
      • 2.2.3.2.5 Prisoners of war.
      • 2.2.3.2.6 Occupation.
  • 2.2.4 CESSATION OF HOSTILITIES
  • 2.2.5 WAR CRIMES
• 2.3 Military law
  • 2.3.1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
  • 2.3.2 JURISDICTION
    • 2.3.2.1 Persons subject to military law.
      • 2.3.2.1.1 Military personnel.
      • 2.3.2.1.2 Civilians.
      • 2.3.2.1.3 Prisoners of war.
    • 2.3.2.2 Offenses against military law.
  • 2.3.3 PROCEDURE
    • 2.3.3.1 Summary punishment.
      • 2.3.3.1.1 Appeal.
      • 2.3.3.1.2 Between summary action and trial.
    • 2.3.3.2 Court-martial.
      • 2.3.3.2.1 Pretrial procedure.
      • 2.3.3.2.2 Protecting the accused.
      • 2.3.3.2.3 Composition of the court.
      • 2.3.3.2.4 Courts of varying competence.
      • 2.3.3.2.5 Counsel for the accused.
    • 2.3.3.3 Appeal.
      • 2.3.3.3.1 Appeal through the courts.
      • 2.3.3.3.2 The ombudsman.
    • 2.3.3.4 Wartime procedure.
  • 2.3.4 LEGAL TRENDS
• 2.4 Defense economics
  • 2.4.1 OPPORTUNITIES FOREGONE: THE COST OF WAR
  • 2.4.2 DEFENSE EXPENDITURE: THE COST OF DETERRENCE
    • 2.4.2.1 Measuring the burden.
    • 2.4.2.2 Comparing burdens.
      • 2.4.2.2.1 Settling on a standard.
      • 2.4.2.2.2 Defense burdens worldwide.
  • 2.4.3 DEFENSE MANAGEMENT: BUDGETING DETERRENCE
    • 2.4.3.1 Stocks and flows.
    • 2.4.3.2 Measuring a threat: the example of NATO.
      • 2.4.3.2.1 The economics of nuclear deterrence.
      • 2.4.3.2.2 The economics of conventional deterrence.
    • 2.4.3.3 Choosing weapon systems.
    • 2.4.3.4 Conscript or volunteer.
  • 2.4.4 WAR FINANCE: WHEN DETERRENCE FAILS
    • 2.4.4.1 Taxation.
    • 2.4.4.2 Borrowing.
    • 2.4.4.3 War's consequences: inflation and recession.

• 3.1 Strategy
  • 3.1.1 FUNDAMENTALS
    • 3.1.1.1 The search for principles.
    • 3.1.1.2 Relation between strategy and tactics.
    • 3.1.1.3 Strategic leadership and war planning.
  • 3.1.2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT THROUGH WORLD WAR II
    • 3.1.2.1 18th-century warfare.
    • 3.1.2.2 Napoleonic warfare.
      • 3.1.2.2.1 Carl von Clausewitz.
      • 3.1.2.2.2 Antoine Jomini.
    • 3.1.2.3 American Civil War to World War I.
      • 3.1.2.3.1 Strategies of North and South.
      • 3.1.2.3.2 The Prussian-German strategists.
      • 3.1.2.3.3 Political-military strategy: Delbrück and Mahan.
    • 3.1.2.4 World War I.
      • 3.1.2.4.1 The war.
      • 3.1.2.4.2 The lessons.
    • 3.1.2.5 Between World Wars I and II.
      • 3.1.2.5.1 Douhet: air supremacy.
      • 3.1.2.5.2 Fuller: mechanized armour.
      • 3.1.2.5.3 Ludendorff: total war.
    • 3.1.2.6 World War II.
      • 3.1.2.6.1 The first phase.
      • 3.1.2.6.2 Global war.
  • 3.1.3 STRATEGY IN THE NUCLEAR AGE
    • 3.1.3.1 The atomic bomb and American strategic thought.
    • 3.1.3.2 Massive retaliation.
    • 3.1.3.3 First and second strikes.
    • 3.1.3.4 Mutual assured destruction.
    • 3.1.3.5 Alternatives to assured destruction.
    • 3.1.3.6 Flexible response.
    • 3.1.3.7 Limited nuclear war.
    • 3.1.3.8 Conventional strategy.
• 3.2 Tactics of land warfare
  • 3.2.1 FUNDAMENTALS
    • 3.2.1.1 Evolution of the term.
    • 3.2.1.2 Victory through force and guile.
    • 3.2.1.3 The need for flexibility.
    • 3.2.1.4 The importance of terrain.
  • 3.2.2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
    • 3.2.2.1 Tribal and ancient tactics.
      • 3.2.2.1.1 The ambush and the trial of strength.
      • 3.2.2.1.2 The phalanx.
      • 3.2.2.1.3 The chariot.
      • 3.2.2.1.4 Light and heavy cavalry.
      • 3.2.2.1.5 Combined infantry and cavalry.
      • 3.2.2.1.6 The legion.
    • 3.2.2.2 Medieval tactics in the West.
      • 3.2.2.2.1 The barbarians.
      • 3.2.2.2.2 The mounted knight.
      • 3.2.2.2.3 Bowmen and pikemen.
      • 3.2.2.2.4 Inferiority of medieval tactics.
    • 3.2.2.3 The advent of firearms.
      • 3.2.2.3.1 Adaptation of pike and cavalry tactics.
      • 3.2.2.3.2 The state-owned army.
      • 3.2.2.3.3 Linear formation.
      • 3.2.2.3.4 The French Revolution.
    • 3.2.2.4 Tactics from Waterloo to the Bulge.
      • 3.2.2.4.1 The growing scale of battle.
      • 3.2.2.4.2 The power of the defense.
      • 3.2.2.4.3 The armoured offensive.
      • 3.2.2.4.4 Changes in command.
      • 3.2.2.4.5 Limitations of the tank.
    • 3.2.2.5 From conventional war to terrorism.
      • 3.2.2.5.1 Nuclear weapons.
      • 3.2.2.5.2 Continued growth of military technology.
      • 3.2.2.5.3 The end of technological warfare.
• 3.3 Naval tactics
  • 3.3.1 FUNDAMENTALS
    • 3.3.1.1 The search for constants.
    • 3.3.1.2 The study of trends.
    • 3.3.1.3 Tactics in the modern era.
      • 3.3.1.3.1 War from land to sea and from sea to land.
      • 3.3.1.3.2 Nuclear weapons.
      • 3.3.1.3.3 Raiding.
  • 3.3.2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
    • 3.3.2.1 The age of galley warfare.
    • 3.3.2.2 The age of fighting sail.
    • 3.3.2.3 The age of steam and big gun.
    • 3.3.2.4 The age of the aircraft carrier.
    • 3.3.2.5 The age of the guided missile.
    • 3.3.2.6 Guerrilla war at sea: the submarine.
• 3.4 Air tactics
  • 3.4.1 THROUGH WORLD WAR I
  • 3.4.2 THROUGH WORLD WAR II
    • 3.4.2.1 Air superiority.
    • 3.4.2.2 Ground attack.
    • 3.4.2.3 Strategic bombing.
  • 3.4.3 THE JET AGE
    • 3.4.3.1 Air superiority.
    • 3.4.3.2 Suppression of air defense.
    • 3.4.3.3 Strategic bombing.
• 3.5 Logistics
  • 3.5.1 FUNDAMENTALS
    • 3.5.1.1 Components of logistics.
      • 3.5.1.1.1 Supply.
      • 3.5.1.1.2 Transportation.
      • 3.5.1.1.3 Facilities.
      • 3.5.1.1.4 Services.
    • 3.5.1.2 Special features of naval logistics.
    • 3.5.1.3 Power versus movement.
      • 3.5.1.3.1 Self-containment.
      • 3.5.1.3.2 Local supply.
      • 3.5.1.3.3 Supply from bases.
  • 3.5.2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
    • 3.5.2.1 Logistic systems before 1850.
    • 3.5.2.2 Logistics in the industrial era.
      • 3.5.2.2.1 The revolution in warfare.
      • 3.5.2.2.2 Transportation and communication.
      • 3.5.2.2.3 The growth in quantity.
      • 3.5.2.2.4 Staged resupply.
      • 3.5.2.2.5 Logistic specialization.
    • 3.5.2.3 Logistics in the nuclear age.
      • 3.5.2.3.1 New technology.
      • 3.5.2.3.2 Strategic mobility.
      • 3.5.2.3.3 Management.
      • 3.5.2.3.4 War in Vietnam.
      • 3.5.2.3.5 Afghanistan.
      • 3.5.2.3.6 Trends and prospects.
• 3.6 Intelligence
  • 3.6.1 LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE
  • 3.6.2 SOURCES OF INTELLIGENCE
    • 3.6.2.1 Acoustics.
    • 3.6.2.2 Imagery.
    • 3.6.2.3 Signals.
    • 3.6.2.4 Radiation.
    • 3.6.2.5 Foreign matériel.
    • 3.6.2.6 Human agents.
  • 3.6.3 TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE
    • 3.6.3.1 Armed forces.
    • 3.6.3.2 Biographical.
    • 3.6.3.3 Cartographic.
    • 3.6.3.4 Economic.
    • 3.6.3.5 Energy.
    • 3.6.3.6 Counterintelligence.
    • 3.6.3.7 Geographic.
    • 3.6.3.8 Medical.
    • 3.6.3.9 Sociological.
    • 3.6.3.10 Transportation and telecommunication.
• 3.7 Guerrilla warfare
  • 3.7.1 HISTORY
  • 3.7.2 PRINCIPLES
    • 3.7.2.1 Purpose and motivation.
    • 3.7.2.2 Popular support.
    • 3.7.2.3 Leaders and recruits.
    • 3.7.2.4 Organization and unity of command.
    • 3.7.2.5 Arms.
    • 3.7.2.6 Terrain and sanctuary.
    • 3.7.2.7 Terror.
  • 3.7.3 STRATEGY AND TACTICS
  • 3.7.4 COUNTERGUERRILLA WARFARE

  　

• 4 Bibliography
  • 4.1 Theory of war.
  • 4.2 Law of war.
  • 4.3 Military law.
  • 4.4 Defense economics.
  • 4.5 Strategy.
  • 4.6 Tactics of land warfare.
  • 4.7 Naval tactics.
  • 4.8 Air tactics.
  • 4.9 Logistics.
  • 4.10 Intelligence.
  • 4.11 Guerrilla warfare.

1 Introduction

War in the popular sense is a conflict among political groups involving hostilities of considerable duration and magnitude. In the usage of social science certain qualifications are added. Sociologists usually apply the term to such conflicts only if they are initiated and conducted in accordance with socially recognized forms. They treat war as an institution recognized in custom or in law. Military writers usually confine the term to hostilities in which the contending groups are sufficiently equal in power to render the outcome uncertain for a time. Armed conflicts of powerful states with primitive peoples are usually called pacifications, military expeditions, or explorations; with small states, they are called interventions or reprisals; and with internal groups, rebellions or insurrections. Such incidents, if the resistance is sufficiently strong or protracted, may achieve a magnitude that entitles them to the name "war."

This article is in two major sections. The first treats the social sciences of war, such as law, economics, and theories of the causes and prevention of war. The second section presents the military arts and sciences, such as strategy, tactics, logistics, and intelligence.

War is treated in several other Macropædia articles. For the relation between diplomacy and war, see INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS, 20TH-CENTURY . For the weapons of war, see WAR, THE TECHNOLOGY OF . For a history of World Wars I and II, see WORLD WARS, THE . Other wars are covered in the history sections of articles on the relevant countries or regions--e.g., for the American Civil War, see UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: Civil War ; for the Punic Wars, see GREEK AND ROMAN CIVILIZATIONS, ANCIENT: The middle republic .