The Technology of War

　전쟁 기술

2 MILITARY TECHNOLOGY BEFORE THE MODERN ERA

• 2.1 Prehistory
  • 2.1.1 THE EARLIEST MILITARY WEAPONS
  • 2.1.2 FROM PRECIOUS METALS TO BASE METALS
• 2.2 Antiquity and the classical age, c. 1000 BC-AD 400
  • 2.2.1 DEFENSIVE WEAPONRY
    • 2.2.1.1 Helmets.
    • 2.2.1.2 Shields.
    • 2.2.1.3 Body armour.
      • 2.2.1.3.1 Bronze.
      • 2.2.1.3.2 Mail.
      • 2.2.1.3.3 Plate-iron armour.
  • 2.2.2 OFFENSIVE WEAPONRY
    • 2.2.2.1 The ax.
    • 2.2.2.2 The spear.
    • 2.2.2.3 The javelin.
    • 2.2.2.4 The sling.
    • 2.2.2.5 The sword.
    • 2.2.2.6 The bow.
      • 2.2.2.6.1 The early bow.
      • 2.2.2.6.2 The composite recurved bow.
      • 2.2.2.6.3 Arrows.
  • 2.2.3 MECHANICAL ARTILLERY
  • 2.2.4 FORTIFICATION
    • 2.2.4.1 Fortress design.
    • 2.2.4.2 Field fortification.
    • 2.2.4.3 Siege towers.
  • 2.2.5 LAND TRANSPORTATION
    • 2.2.5.1 The horse.
    • 2.2.5.2 The elephant.
    • 2.2.5.3 The chariot.
• 2.3 The age of cavalry, c. AD 400-1350
  • 2.3.1 THE WAR-HORSE
  • 2.3.2 PERSONAL ARMOUR
    • 2.3.2.1 Mail.
    • 2.3.2.2 Plate.
  • 2.3.3 THE CASTLE
    • 2.3.3.1 The motte-and-bailey castle.
    • 2.3.3.2 Stone fortifications.
  • 2.3.4 SIEGE WEAPONS
    • 2.3.4.1 The trebuchet.
    • 2.3.4.2 Greek fire.
  • 2.3.5 THE HORSE ARCHER
    • 2.3.5.1 The Huns and Avars.
    • 2.3.5.2 The Byzantine cataphract.
    • 2.3.5.3 The Turks.
    • 2.3.5.4 The Mongols.
• 2.4 The infantry revolution, c. 1200-1500
  • 2.4.1 THE CROSSBOW
  • 2.4.2 THE ENGLISH LONGBOW
  • 2.4.3 HALBERD AND PIKE
    • 2.4.3.1 The halberd.
    • 2.4.3.2 The pike.
• 2.5 The gunpowder revolution, c. 1300-1650
  • 2.5.1 EARLY GUNPOWDER
    • 2.5.1.1 Chemistry and internal ballistics.
    • 2.5.1.2 Serpentine powder.
    • 2.5.1.3 Corned powder.
    • 2.5.1.4 Refinements in ballistics.
  • 2.5.2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF ARTILLERY
    • 2.5.2.1 Wrought-iron muzzle-loaders.
    • 2.5.2.2 Wrought-iron breechloaders.
    • 2.5.2.3 Cast bronze muzzle-loaders.
    • 2.5.2.4 Cast-iron cannon.
  • 2.5.3 EARLY USE OF ARTILLERY
    • 2.5.3.1 Terminology and classification.
    • 2.5.3.2 Special-purpose shot.
    • 2.5.3.3 Gunnery.
  • 2.5.4 THE FIRST SMALL ARMS
    • 2.5.4.1 The matchlock.
    • 2.5.4.2 The wheel lock.
    • 2.5.4.3 The flintlock.
  • 2.5.5 FORTIFICATION
    • 2.5.5.1 From medieval to modern.
    • 2.5.5.2 The sunken profile.
    • 2.5.5.3 The bastioned trace.
    • 2.5.5.4 Duration of early modern fortification.

• 3.1 Small arms
  • 3.1.1 SHOULDER WEAPONS
    • 3.1.1.1 Smoothbore muzzle-loaders.
      • 3.1.1.1.1 Standardized patterns and parts.
      • 3.1.1.1.2 Percussion ignition.
    • 3.1.1.2 Rifled muzzle-loaders.
      • 3.1.1.2.1 Early rifling.
      • 3.1.1.2.2 Minié rifles.
    • 3.1.1.3 Breechloaders.
      • 3.1.1.3.1 The bolt action.
      • 3.1.1.3.2 The smokeless-powder revolution.
      • 3.1.1.3.3 Magazine repeaters.
    • 3.1.1.4 Automatic weapons.
      • 3.1.1.4.1 The submachine gun.
    • 3.1.1.5 The assault rifle.
  • 3.1.2 MACHINE GUNS
    • 3.1.2.1 Early manual weapons.
      • 3.1.2.1.1 The Gatling gun.
      • 3.1.2.1.2 The mitrailleuse.
    • 3.1.2.2 Heavy machine guns.
      • 3.1.2.2.1 Recoil.
      • 3.1.2.2.2 Gas operation.
      • 3.1.2.2.3 Blowback.
    • 3.1.2.3 Light machine guns.
    • 3.1.2.4 Large-calibre machine guns.
  • 3.1.3 PISTOLS
    • 3.1.3.1 Revolvers.
    • 3.1.3.2 Self-loaders.
  • 3.1.4 GRENADE LAUNCHERS
    • 3.1.4.1 Single shot.
    • 3.1.4.2 Automatic fire.
  • 3.1.5 ANTITANK WEAPONS
• 3.2 Artillery
  • 3.2.1 CANNONS
    • 3.2.1.1 Rifled bores.
      • 3.2.1.1.1 Breech loading.
      • 3.2.1.1.2 Gun construction.
    • 3.2.1.2 Recoil control.
    • 3.2.1.3 Carriages and mountings.
      • 3.2.1.3.1 Coast guns.
      • 3.2.1.3.2 Field artillery.
      • 3.2.1.3.3 Field
    • 3.2.1.4 Fire control.
      • 3.2.1.4.1 Azimuth and range.
      • 3.2.1.4.2 Predicted fire.
      • 3.2.1.4.3 Target acquisition.
    • 3.2.1.5 Ammunition.
      • 3.2.1.5.1 Projectile, powder, and fuze.
      • 3.2.1.5.2 Nuclear shells, guided projectiles, and rocket assistance.
  • 3.2.2 MORTARS
  • 3.2.3 ANTIAIRCRAFT ARTILLERY
    • 3.2.3.1 Heavy weapons and the problem of fire control.
    • 3.2.3.2 Light weapons.
  • 3.2.4 ANTITANK GUNS
  • 3.2.5 RECOILLESS GUNS
• 3.3 Rockets and missile systems
  • 3.3.1 MILITARY ROCKETS
    • 3.3.1.1 Early history.
    • 3.3.1.2 The 19th century.
    • 3.3.1.3 World War I and after.
    • 3.3.1.4 World War II.
      • 3.3.1.4.1 Barrage rockets.
      • 3.3.1.4.2 The bazooka.
      • 3.3.1.4.3 Antiaircraft rockets.
      • 3.3.1.4.4 Aerial rockets.
    • 3.3.1.5 Postwar.
  • 3.3.2 TACTICAL GUIDED MISSILES
    • 3.3.2.1 Guidance methods.
      • 3.3.2.1.1 Command.
      • 3.3.2.1.2 Inertial.
      • 3.3.2.1.3 Active.
      • 3.3.2.1.4 Semiactive.
      • 3.3.2.1.5 Passive.
    • 3.3.2.2 Guided-missile systems.
      • 3.3.2.2.1 Antitank and guided assault.
      • 3.3.2.2.2 Air-to-surface.
      • 3.3.2.2.3 Air-to-air.
      • 3.3.2.2.4 Antiship.
      • 3.3.2.2.5 Surface-to-air.
  • 3.3.3 STRATEGIC MISSILES
  • 3.3.3.1 Ballistic missiles.
    • 3.3.3.1.1 Design principles.
    • 3.3.3.1.2 The V-2.
    • 3.3.3.1.3 The first ICBMs.
    • 3.3.3.1.4 From liquid to solid fuel.
    • 3.3.3.1.5 The first SLBMs.
    • 3.3.3.1.6 Multiple warheads.
    • 3.3.3.1.7 Ballistic missile defense.
    • 3.3.3.1.8 Maneuverable warheads.
  • 3.3.3.2 Cruise missiles.
    • 3.3.3.2.1 The V-1.
    • 3.3.3.2.2 Snark.
    • 3.3.3.2.3 Navaho.
    • 3.3.3.2.4 Matador and other programs.
    • 3.3.3.2.5 ALCM, SLCM, and GLCM.
• 3.4 Nuclear weapons
  • 3.4.1 Principles of fission weapons.
  • 3.4.2 Principles of fusion weapons.
  • 3.4.3 THE DEVELOPMENT OF FISSION WEAPONS
  • 3.4.3.1 The first atomic bomb.
    • 3.4.3.2 The spread of atomic weapons.
      • 3.4.3.2.1 The Axis powers.
      • 3.4.3.2.2 Great Britain.
      • 3.4.3.2.3 The Soviet Union.
      • 3.4.3.2.4 France.
      • 3.4.3.2.5 China.
      • 3.4.3.2.6 Other countries.
  • 3.4.4 THE DEVELOPMENT OF FUSION WEAPONS
    • 3.4.4.1 The United States.
    • 3.4.4.2 The Soviet Union.
    • 3.4.4.3 Great Britain.
    • 3.4.4.4 France.
    • 3.4.4.5 China.
  • 3.4.5 REFINEMENTS IN DESIGN
    • 3.4.5.1 Fission.
    • 3.4.5.2 Fusion.
• 3.5 Chemical and biological weapons
  • 3.5.1 CHEMICAL WARFARE
    • 3.5.1.1 History of use.
    • 3.5.1.2 The weapons.
    • 3.5.1.3 Defense.
  • 3.5.2 BIOLOGICAL WARFARE
• 3.6 Fortification
  • 3.6.1 TRENCH WARFARE, 1860-1918
    • 3.6.1.1 The American Civil War.
    • 3.6.1.2 World War I.
  • 3.6.2 PERMANENT FORTIFICATION, 1914-45
    • 3.6.2.1 World War I.
    • 3.6.2.2 Linear fortifications of World War II.
      • 3.6.2.2.1 The Maginot Line and the West Wall.
      • 3.6.2.2.2 Other fort series.
      • 3.6.2.2.3 German channel defenses.
  • 3.6.3 NUCLEAR FORTIFICATION
• 3.7 Tanks and armoured vehicles
  • 3.7.1 TANKS
    • 3.7.1.1 Earliest developments.
    • 3.7.1.2 World War I.
    • 3.7.1.3 Interwar developments.
    • 3.7.1.4 World War II.
    • 3.7.1.5 Postwar tank armament.
      • 3.7.1.5.1 Gun calibre.
      • 3.7.1.5.2 Ammunition.
      • 3.7.1.5.3 Fire control.
    • 3.7.1.6 Postwar tank design and propulsion.
      • 3.7.1.6.1 Armour.
      • 3.7.1.6.2 Mobility.
      • 3.7.1.6.3 Configuration.
  • 3.7.2 AMPHIBIOUS VEHICLES
  • 3.7.3 SELF-PROPELLED GUNS
  • 3.7.4 ARMOURED PERSONNEL CARRIERS
    • 3.7.4.1 Tracked carriers.
    • 3.7.4.2 Tracked carriers.
    • 3.7.4.3 Infantry fighting vehicles.
• 3.8 Naval ships and craft
  • 3.8.1 THE AGE OF OAR AND RAM
    • 3.8.1.1 Egypt.
    • 3.8.1.2 Crete.
    • 3.8.1.3 Phoenicia.
    • 3.8.1.4 Greece.
      • 3.8.1.4.1 Biremes and triremes.
      • 3.8.1.4.2 Later developments.
    • 3.8.1.5 Rome.
    • 3.8.1.6 The Byzantine Empire.
    • 3.8.1.7 Viking vessels.
  • 3.8.2 THE AGE OF GUN AND SAIL
    • 3.8.2.1 Gun-armed warships.
    • 3.8.2.2 From oar to sail.
      • 3.8.2.2.1 The galleon.
    • 3.8.2.3 Ship of the line.
    • 3.8.2.4 Frigates and smaller vessels.
  • 3.8.3 THE AGE OF STEAM AND IRON
    • 3.8.3.1 Toward the ironclad.
      • 3.8.3.1.1 Propulsion.
      • 3.8.3.1.2 Armament.
      • 3.8.3.1.3 Armour.
    • 3.8.3.2 Toward the battleship.
      • 3.8.3.2.1 Ships.
      • 3.8.3.2.2 Armour.
      • 3.8.3.2.3 Armament.
  • 3.8.4 THE AGE OF BIG GUN AND TORPEDO
    • 3.8.4.1 Armament.
      • 3.8.4.1.1 Torpedoes.
    • 3.8.4.2 Armour.
    • 3.8.4.3 Propulsion.
      • 3.8.4.3.1 Fuel.
      • 3.8.4.3.2 Internal combustion.
    • 3.8.4.4 Battleships.
    • 3.8.4.5 Cruisers.
    • 3.8.4.6 Destroyers.
  • 3.8.5 THE AGE OF THE AIRCRAFT CARRIER
    • 3.8.5.1 The last capital ships.
    • 3.8.5.2 Aircraft carriers.
      • 3.8.5.2.1 World War I.
      • 3.8.5.2.2 Improvements between the wars.
      • 3.8.5.2.3 World War II.
    • 3.8.5.3 Destroyers and escort ships.
    • 3.8.5.4 Torpedo boats.
    • 3.8.5.5 Amphibians.
  • 3.8.6 THE AGE OF THE GUIDED MISSILE
    • 3.8.6.1 Propulsion.
      • 3.8.6.1.1 Nuclear power.
      • 3.8.6.1.2 Gas turbines.
    • 3.8.6.2 Armour.
    • 3.8.6.3 Aircraft carriers.
      • 3.8.6.3.1 Large carriers.
      • 3.8.6.3.2 Light carriers.
    • 3.8.6.4 Fleet escort ships.
      • 3.8.6.4.1 Cruisers.
      • 3.8.6.4.2 Destroyers and frigates.
    • 3.8.6.5 Amphibians.
• 3.9 Submarines
  • 3.9.1 EARLY HAND-POWERED SUBMERSIBLES
    • 3.9.1.1 First use in war.
    • 3.9.1.2 American Civil War and after.
  • 3.9.2 TOWARD DIESEL-ELECTRIC POWER
    • 3.9.2.1 World War I.
    • 3.9.2.2 World War II.
    • 3.9.2.3 Postwar developments.
  • 3.9.3 NUCLEAR PROPULSION
    • 3.9.3.1 Nuclear power plants.
      • 3.9.3.1.1 Adoption by navies.
    • 3.9.3.2 The nuclear navies.
      • 3.9.3.2.1 Strategic submarines.
      • 3.9.3.2.2 Attack submarines.
    • 3.9.3.3 Design principles.
      • 3.9.3.3.1 Speed.
      • 3.9.3.3.2 Depth.
      • 3.9.3.3.3 Silencing.
• 3.10 Military aircraft
  • 3.10.1 EARLY HISTORY
  • 3.10.2 WORLD WAR I
    • 3.10.2.1 Airships.
    • 3.10.2.2 Reconnaissance aircraft.
    • 3.10.2.3 Fighters.
    • 3.10.2.4 Ground attack.
    • 3.10.2.5 Ground attack.
    • 3.10.2.6 Naval aviation.
    • 3.10.2.7 Air transport and training.
  • 3.10.3 INTERWAR DEVELOPMENTS
    • 3.10.3.1 Civilian design improvements.
    • 3.10.3.2 Fighters.
    • 3.10.3.3 Bombers.
    • 3.10.3.4 Carrier aircraft.
  • 3.10.4 WORLD WAR II
    • 3.10.4.1 Fighters.
      • 3.10.4.1.1 Day fighters.
      • 3.10.4.1.2 Night fighters.
    • 3.10.4.2 Ground attack.
    • 3.10.4.3 Bombers.
    • 3.10.4.4 Naval aviation.
    • 3.10.4.5 Reconnaissance.
    • 3.10.4.6 Training.
    • 3.10.4.7 Air transport.
    • 3.10.4.8 Helicopters.
  • 3.10.5 THE JET AGE
    • 3.10.5.1 Early jet fighters.
      • 3.10.5.1.1 Subsonic flight.
      • 3.10.5.1.2 Transonic flight.
    • 3.10.5.2 Modern jet fighters.
      • 3.10.5.2.1 Supersonic flight.
      • 3.10.5.2.2 Mach 2.
      • 3.10.5.2.3 Multimission.
    • 3.10.5.3 Bombers.
      • 3.10.5.3.1 High-altitude craft.
      • 3.10.5.3.2 Low-level penetration.
    • 3.10.5.4 Stealth.
      • 3.10.5.4.1 The first operational craft.
      • 3.10.5.4.2 Stealth technology.
    • 3.10.5.5 Other military aircraft.
      • 3.10.5.5.1 Transport.
      • 3.10.5.5.2 Reconnaissance.
      • 3.10.5.5.3 Airborne early warning.
    • 3.10.5.6 Helicopters.
      • 3.10.5.6.1 Assault and attack helicopters.
      • 3.10.5.6.2 Naval helicopters.
    • 3.10.5.7 Remotely piloted vehicles.
• 3.11 Warning and detection systems
  • 3.11.1 HISTORY
  • 3.11.2 ELECTROMAGNETIC SENSORS
    • 3.11.2.1 Modern detector technology.
      • 3.11.2.1.1 The visible region.
      • 3.11.2.1.2 Infrared.
      • 3.11.2.1.3 Radar.
      • 3.11.2.1.4 Radio sensors.
      • 3.11.2.1.5 Acoustic techniques.
      • 3.11.2.1.6 Seismic detectors.
      • 3.11.2.1.7 Magnetic detectors.
      • 3.11.2.1.8 Nuclear detectors.
      • 3.11.2.1.9 Chemical sensors.
    • 3.11.2.2 Future developments.
  • 3.11.3 WARNING SYSTEMS
    • 3.11.3.1 Modern systems.
      • 3.11.3.1.1 Air defense systems.
      • 3.11.3.1.2 Ballistic missile warning.
      • 3.11.3.1.3 Ballistic missile defense.
      • 3.11.3.1.4 Space surveillance.
      • 3.11.3.1.5 Detection of nuclear explosions.
      • 3.11.3.1.6 Infiltration and base defense systems.
      • 3.11.3.1.7 Aerial reconnaissance.
      • 3.11.3.1.8 Antisubmarine systems.
• 3.12 Military communication
  • 3.12.1 EARLY DEVELOPMENT
  • 3.12.2 THE ADVENT OF ELECTRICAL SIGNALING
  • 3.12.3 FROM WORLD WAR I TO 1940
  • 3.12.4 WORLD WAR II AND AFTER

• 4.1 Military technology before the modern era.
• 4.2 Modern weapons and weapon systems:

1 Introduction

Technology may be defined as the application of knowledge to obtain a physical effect by means of an object. It may also be defined as the object itself and as the knowledge required to design, produce, and employ the object. The technology of war encompasses the entire range of weapons, equipment, structures, and vehicles with which man has armed himself specifically for the purpose of fighting his fellow man. It also includes the knowledge required to construct them, to employ them in combat, and to repair and replenish them. (see also military technology)

The technology of war may be divided into five categories. Offensive arms harm the enemy, while defensive weapons ward off offensive blows. Transportation technology moves soldiers and weaponry; communications coordinate the movements of armed forces; and sensors detect forces and guide weaponry.

From the earliest times, a critical relationship has existed between military technology, the tactics of its employment, and the psychological factors that bind its users into units. Success in combat, the sine qua non of military organizations and the ultimate purpose of military technology, depends on the ability of the combatant group to coordinate the actions of its members in a tactically effective manner. This coordination is a function of the strength of the forces that bind the unit together, inducing its members to set aside their individual interests--even life itself--for the welfare of the group. These forces, in turn, are directly affected both by tactics and by technology.

The influence of technology can be either positive or negative. The experience of the ancient Greek hoplite infantrymen is one example of positive influence. Their arms and armour were most effective for fighting in close formation, which led in turn to marching in step, which further augmented cohesion and made the phalanx a tactically formidable formation. The late medieval knight offers an example of the negative influence of technology. To wield his sword and lance effectively, he and his charger needed considerable space, yet his closed helmet made communication with his fellows extremely difficult. It is not surprising, then, that knights of the late Middle Ages tended to fight as individuals and were often defeated by cohesive units of less well-equipped opponents.

This article is about the physical artifacts of war, the objects used in combat and in supporting the application of military force. The article is divided into two parts. The first traces the development of military technology by historical period, from prehistory to the 18th century. The second part discusses individual weapons or weapon systems as they have been developed since the 18th century.

A full treatment of the actual waging of war--including discussions of strategy, tactics, and logistics--is found in the article WAR, THE THEORY AND CONDUCT OF . The social sciences of war, such as economics, law, and the theory of its origins, are also covered in that article. For a military history of World Wars I and II, see WORLD WARS .

Warfare requires the use of technologies that also have nonmilitary applications. For descriptions of the propulsion systems used in military vehicles, ships, aircraft, and missiles, see ENERGY CONVERSION ; for the manufacture of explosives, see EXPLOSIVES . The principles of radar, and its military applications, are covered in RADAR . For the principles of aircraft flight, see TRANSPORTATION .

(J.F.G.)

This article contains the following sections: