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civil disobedience,
also called PASSIVE RESISTANCE, refusal to obey the demands or commands of a
government or occupying power, without resorting to violence or active measures
of opposition; its usual purpose is to force concessions from the government or
occupying power. Civil disobedience has been a major tactic and philosophy of
nationalist movements in Africa and India, in the civil rights movement of U.S.
blacks, and of labour and anti-war movements in many countries.
Civil disobedience is a symbolic or
ritualistic violation of the law, rather than a rejection of the system as a
whole. The civil disobedient, finding legitimate avenues of change blocked or
nonexistent, sees himself as obligated by a higher, extralegal principle to
break some specific law. It is because civil disobedience is a crime, however,
and known by actor and public alike to be punishable that the act serves as a
protest. By submitting to punishment, the civil
disobedient hopes to set a moral example that will provoke the majority or the
government into effecting meaningful political, social, or economic change.
Under the imperative of setting a moral example, the major spokesmen of civil
disobedience insist that the illegal actions be nonviolent.
A variety of criticisms has been
directed against the philosophy and practice of civil disobedience. The radical
critique of the philosophy of civil disobedience condemns its acceptance of the
existing political structure; conservative schools of thought, on the other
hand, see the logical extension of civil disobedience as anarchy and the right
of the individual to break any law he chooses, at any time. Activists themselves
are divided in interpreting civil disobedience either as a total philosophy of
social change or as merely a tactic to be employed when the movement lacks other
means. On a pragmatic level, the efficacy of civil disobedience hinges on the
adherence of the opposition to a certain morality to which an appeal can
ultimately be made.
The philosophical roots of civil
disobedience lie deep in Western thought: Cicero, Saint Thomas Aquinas, John
Locke, Thomas Jefferson, and Henry David Thoreau all sought to justify conduct
by virtue of its harmony with some antecedent superhuman moral law. The man who
most clearly formulated the concept of civil disobedience for the modern world
was Mohandas Gandhi. Drawing from Eastern and
Western thought, Gandhi developed the philosophy of satyagraha (q.v.).
First in the Transvaal of South Africa in 1906 and later in India, Gandhi led
his people in satyagrahas to obtain
equal rights and freedom. Inspired by Gandhi's example, the civil-rights
movement of the American blacks from the 1950s to the 1970s adopted the tactics
and philosophy of civil disobedience, perhaps best expressed by Martin
Luther King, Jr. Later the tactics of civil disobedience were employed by
a variety of protest groups. (see also satyagraha)
The principle of civil disobedience has
achieved some standing in international law
through the war crime trials at Nürnberg after World War II, which affirmed
the principle that an individual may, under certain circumstances, be held
accountable for failure to break the laws of his country.
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