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Wittgenstein, Ludwig
(Josef Johann) (b. April 26, 1889, Vienna--d. April
29, 1951, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, Eng.), Austrian-born English philosopher,
who was one of the most influential figures in British philosophy during the
second quarter of the 20th century and who produced two original and influential
systems of philosophical thought--his logical theories and later his philosophy
of language.
Wittgenstein, the son of a leading
Austrian steelmaker, was the youngest of eight children, all of whom were
generously endowed with artistic and intellectual talent. Both parents were
musically gifted, and their home was a centre of musical life. Educated at home
until the age of 14, Wittgenstein then studied for three years in an Austrian
school, where the emphasis was on mathematical and natural sciences, after which
he studied mechanical engineering for two years in Berlin. In 1908 he engaged in
aeronautical research in England, experimenting with kites at an upper
atmosphere station. His interest soon turned toward developing an engine that
would propel an airplane. Working in an engineering laboratory of the University
of Manchester, where he was registered as a research student, he conceived the
idea of placing a reaction jet at the tip of each blade of a propeller. He
designed an experimental engine, supervised its construction, and tested it
successfully. Problems relating to the design of a propeller aroused his
interest in mathematics, and this soon produced a desire to understand the
foundations of mathematics. Bertrand Russell's
book The
Principles of Mathematics (1903) had a decisive influence on him.
Abandoning his engineering studies at Manchester in 1911, he went to Cambridge
to study with Russell. He progressed rapidly in mathematical logic;
according to Russell, he "soon knew all that I had to teach." Russell
remarked that getting to know Wittgenstein was "one of the most exciting
intellectual adventures" of his life. Wittgenstein, he said, had "fire
and penetration and intellectual purity to a quite extraordinary degree."
Wittgenstein remained at Cambridge
through most of 1913, working with unrelenting intensity at problems in and
about logic and engaging in prolonged discussions with Russell. He then went to
Skjolden, Nor., where he lived in seclusion, working hard at logic. Upon the
outbreak of World War I, Wittgenstein enlisted in the Austrian army, serving
first on a river vessel and later in an artillery workshop. In 1916 he served in
a howitzer regiment on the Russian front as an artillery observer, winning
several decorations for bravery. He was then sent to be trained as an artillery
officer, was commissioned, and continued to serve on the eastern front until
1918, when he was transferred to a mountain artillery regiment on the Italian
front.
Period
of the "Tractatus." Throughout the war,
Wittgenstein worked on problems of logic and philosophy, writing his thoughts in
notebooks that he carried in his rucksack. When he became a prisoner of the
Italians at the end of the war, he had a completed manuscript, which he sent to
Russell in England. After his release, Wittgenstein tried in vain to find a
publisher for his book. Its eventual publication, due to Russell's influence,
occurred in 1921 under the title Logisch-philosophische
Abhandlung (Tractatus
Logico-Philosophicus, 1922). The Tractatus
is universally accepted as novel, profound, and influential. The book is a
series of remarks, carefully ordered and numbered in a decimal notation.
Although only 75 pages, it sweeps over a vast range of topics: the nature of language;
the limits of what can be said; logic, ethics, and philosophy; causality and
induction; the self and the will; death and the mystical; good and evil. The
central question of the Tractatus is:
How is language possible? How can a man, by uttering a sequence of words, say something? And how can another person understand him?
Wittgenstein was struck by the fact that a man can understand sentences that he
has never previously encountered. The solution that burst upon him was that a
sentence that says something (a proposition)
must be "a picture of
reality." "A proposition shows its
sense," he wrote; it shows a situation in the world. His picture theory
seemed to explain the "connection between the signs on paper and a
situation outside in the world." Not realizing that propositions are
pictures comes from failing to consider them in their "completely
analyzed" form, in which they are arrangements of simple signs that are
correlated with simple elements of reality so that "the picture touches
reality." (see also meaning,
analytic proposition )
One of the most striking features of the
Tractatus is its conception of the
limits of language. Not only must a propositional picture contain exactly as
many elements as does the situation that it represents but, furthermore, all
pictures and all possible situations in the world must share the same logical
form, which is at once "the form of representation" and "the form
of reality." But this form that is common to language and reality cannot
itself be represented. "Propositions can represent the whole of
reality," he wrote, "but they cannot represent what they must have in
common with reality in order to be able to represent it--logical form."
"What can be said can only be said by means of a proposition, and so
nothing that is necessary for the understanding of all propositions can be said."
There are other things that cannot be
represented ("said"): the necessary existence of simple elements of
reality; the existence of a thinking, willing self; and the existence of
absolute value. These things are also unthinkable, since the limits of language
are the limits of thought. Thus Wittgenstein's remark, "Unsayable things do
indeed exist," is itself something that cannot be said or thought; it may
give insight, but it is actually nonsensical and eventually must be "thrown
away." The final sentence of the book ("Whereof one cannot speak
thereof one must be silent") is no truism. It is a highly metaphysical
remark that attempts to convey the unsayable, unthinkable doctrine that there is
a realm about which one can say nothing.
Upon returning to civilian life in 1919,
Wittgenstein gave away the large fortune inherited from his father. He once said
that he had done this to avoid having friends for the sake of his money, but it
is also true that he disliked ease and luxury. His mode of life came to be
characterized by extreme simplicity and frugality.
Feeling that the Tractatus had exhausted his contributions to philosophy,
Wittgenstein sought some other vocation. He became an elementary school teacher
and beginning in 1920 taught in various tiny villages in Lower Austria. During
this period he was severely unhappy and frequently thought of suicide. He was
helped, however, by his relationship with his young pupils. Painful frictions
eventually developed between Wittgenstein and some of the other teachers and
villagers, and in 1925 he abandoned his career as a school teacher. For a few
months he served as a gardener's assistant in a monastery near Vienna. When he
was invited to undertake the building of a mansion in Vienna for one of his
sisters, he accepted the task. This project, which occupied his time for two
years, was carried through with typical concentration and originality.
Wittgenstein's musical gifts were
considerable. He played the clarinet when a young man, and throughout his life
he had the rare ability to whistle difficult classical music, sometimes
whistling long passages from memory. Wittgenstein's musical sophistication as
well as the peculiar authority of his intelligence and personality are reflected
in an incident that occurred when a well-known string quartet was rehearsing in
a home where Wittgenstein was one of a small group of listeners. Extremely
reserved at first, he offered a few modest remarks about the interpretation of
the music; but eventually, according to the account of a witness, "he was
carried away by passion and intervened in the rehearsal." The musicians
reacted with polite disdain, but at a later rehearsal, the account continues,
"Wittgenstein, now completely accepted by the four musicians, did most of
the talking, and his objections and advice were heard as deferentially as if
Gustav Mahler himself had interrupted their rehearsal."
For a decade after World War I,
Wittgenstein did not engage in philosophical studies. He did, however,
occasionally meet with other philosophers: the brilliant young philosopher Frank
Ramsey and a few members of the so-called Vienna Circle,
which gave birth to Logical Positivism.
Period
of the "Philosophical Investigations."
Suddenly Wittgenstein felt that once again he could do creative work in
philosophy. He returned to Cambridge early in 1929, where he was made a fellow
of Trinity College. Through his lectures and the wide circulation of notes taken
by his students, he gradually came to exert a powerful influence on
philosophical thought throughout the English-speaking world. Those who attended
his discussions were impressed by the force of his intellect, his passionate
seriousness, and the novelty of his ideas and methods. Through these lectures,
which were extemporaneous, often taking the form of responses to his own
questions, he was creating a new philosophical outlook.
From his return to Cambridge in 1929
until his death 23 years later, Wittgenstein wrote prodigiously. A large number
of his notebooks, manuscripts, and typescripts have been preserved. The crown of
this work was the Philosophische
Untersuchungen (1953; Philosophical
Investigations), which, in accordance with his wishes, was published
only after his death. Subsequently, a number of related writings have been
edited and published.
The thinking that began afresh in 1929
gradually arrived at a very different outlook from that of the Tractatus.
Wittgenstein came to reject such former conceptions as that a proposition
has one and only one complete analysis; that every proposition has a definite
sense; that reality and language are each composed of simple elements; that
there is an essence of language, of
propositions, of thought; that there is an a priori order of the world. With the
rejection of the assumption that all representations must share a common logical
form, the conception of the unsayable disappeared. (see also Analytic philosophy, a
priori knowledge)
In the Tractatus
Wittgenstein had believed that the endless variety of kinds of uses of
language is misleading--hidden beneath this diversity there must be a unifying
essence to which a philosopher tries to penetrate. In the Investigations he held that this belief is an illusion. There is no
unity hidden in the diversity. The perplexities that the philosopher feels about
the nature of memory, of thinking, of understanding a word, or of following a
rule and his insistence on asking "What is knowledge?" "What is
an intention?" "What is an assertion?" are eased, or quieted, by
descriptions, or reminders, of what lies open to view, namely the ranges of
differing cases in which one applies these words as he uses language, or works
with it, in the daily traffic of speech and communication. These descriptions
break the hold of the preconceptions that falsify philosophical thinking; they
destroy the obsessive belief that there must be an essence of knowledge, of
intention, of assertion.
Wittgenstein employed the example of
games and tried to get his reader to rid himself of the assumption that there is
a common nature of games. Some but not all games are amusing or involve
competition or winning and losing; there is only a network of "overlapping
and criss-crossing" similarities between games, not some common feature
running through all games. Wittgenstein used the term "family
resemblance"; he held that just as the word "game" is applied to
a range of cases that have only a family resemblance, so it is with the words
that loom so large in philosophy: "knowledge,"
"proposition," "memory," "intention,"
"thought," "rule," and "belief." Something is
called a belief, for example, perhaps because it has similarities with some of
the things that were previously called beliefs. The application of a term is
extended from previous cases to new cases "as in spinning a thread we twist
fibre on fibre. And the strength of the thread does not reside in the fact that
some one fibre runs through its whole length, but in the overlapping of many
fibres. (see also language
game, universal)
An outstanding feature of Wittgenstein's
second philosophical position is his concern to show how concepts are linked to
actions and reactions, to the expression of the concepts in human life.
"What we are supplying," he wrote, "are really remarks on the
natural history of human beings." The perplexity that a man feels about the
meaning of a form of words may be relieved if he asks himself, "On what
occasion, for what purpose, do we say this? What kind of actions accompany these
words? (Think of a greeting.) In what scenes will they be used; and what
for?" Wittgenstein's aim was to display the function and significance of concepts
as due not to an intangible realm of mind but to the human forms of life in
which they are embedded.
Whereas the Tractatus is regarded with universal admiration, the reception of
the Investigations has been mixed.
Some students of philosophy are perplexed by the enigmatic style and the seeming
lack of organization. Some think it is inferior to the Tractatus
in both precision and seriousness, but for others it has radically
transformed and enriched philosophy.
In 1939 Wittgenstein was appointed to
the chair in philosophy at Cambridge University previously held by that master
of philosophical analysis G.E. Moore. During World War II he left Cambridge to
serve as a porter in Guy's Hospital in London and later worked as a laboratory
assistant in the Royal Victoria Infirmary. As in his previous war service, he
continued to think and write on philosophical problems. In the autumn of 1944 he
returned to Cambridge to resume his lectures and discussions. He grew more and
more restive, however, as a professor of philosophy, and at the end of 1947 he
resigned his chair. He wanted to devote his time and strength to completing the Investigations,
and also he felt a need for "thinking alone,
without having to talk to anybody." He stayed in a cottage on the west
coast of Ireland until his health would no longer permit it. Thereafter he lived
most of the time with various friends in the United States and England. He was
frequently ill, and in the autumn of 1949 he was found to have cancer--a
discovery that did not disturb him since he had "no wish to live on." He continued to do intensive work,
however, until his death two years later.
It is not easy to characterize
Wittgenstein's attitude toward his own philosophical creation. He regarded the Philosophical
Investigations as imperfect; he tried with fierce energy and concentration
to perfect it, yet despaired of success. He was inclined to be pessimistic about
the fate of his work. "It is not impossible," he wrote, "that it
should fall to the lot of this work, in its poverty and in the darkness of this
time, to bring light into one brain or another--but, of course, it is not
likely." He regarded his own thinking as being alien to the scientific and
mathematical spirit of the age in which he lived. He felt as if he were writing
for people who belonged to a different culture.
It cannot be doubted that Wittgenstein
has made philosophy more self-conscious and has introduced a new conception of
its nature. In his view a philosophical problem is not something for which a
solution must be sought: no theorem is to be proved nor any hypothesis tested.
Instead, the problem is a confusion, an entanglement of one's own thoughts.
"Why is philosophy so complicated?" he wrote. "It ought to be entirely
simple.--Philosophy unties the knots in our thinking that we have, in a
senseless way, put there. To do this it must make movements that are just as
complicated as these knots. Although the result of philosophy is simple, its
method cannot be if it is to succeed. The complexity of philosophy is not a
complexity of its subject matter, but of our knotted understanding." The
result of philosophical thinking of the right kind is not a truth discovered but
a confusion dissolved. In all of his conceptual studies, Wittgenstein was
searching for das erlösende Wort, the word that unties one's knotted
understanding. ( N.A.M./Ed.)
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