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Roosevelt, Theodore,
byname
TEDDY ROOSEVELT (b. Oct. 27, 1858, New York City--d. Jan. 6, 1919, Oyster Bay,
N.Y., U.S.), 26th president of the United States (1901-09) and writer, explorer,
and soldier, who expanded the powers of the presidency and of the federal
government on the side of public interest in conflicts between big business and
big labour. He also engaged the nation in affairs of Asia and Europe. He won the
Nobel Peace Prize in 1906 for mediating the end of the Russo-Japanese War, and
he promoted the construction of the Panama Canal (1904-14).
The early years.
Roosevelt was born into a moderately wealthy family of Dutch ancestry;
his mother, Martha Bulloch of Georgia, was of Scots-Irish and Huguenot descent.
He received an excellent education from private tutors and at Harvard College;
he was one of the few presidents endowed with an encompassing intellectual
curiosity. In 1880 he entered Columbia University Law School. But historical
writing and politics soon lured him away from a legal career. During the same
year he married Alice Hathaway Lee of Boston and after her death, in 1884,
married Edith Kermit Carow, with whom he lived for the rest of his life near
Oyster Bay, Long Island, N.Y.
Though a physical weakling during his youth, Roosevelt developed a
rugged physique by persistent exercise and became a lifelong advocate of
strenuous activity. He was a born competitor against both nature and his fellow
man, and he used the same enormous energy in public life. At the age of 23 he
successfully ran for the New York State
Assembly, in which he soon became one of the Republican leaders, known for his
opposition to corrupt, party-machine politics. Misfortune then struck in the
form of three successive political defeats. But after two years spent ranching
in the Dakota Territory he reentered public life and continued his reform
activities as a member of the U.S. Civil Service Commission (1889-95) and as the
president of the New York City Board of Police Commissioners (1895-97). As
assistant secretary of the Navy under Pres. William
McKinley he vociferously advocated war with Spain. When war was declared
in 1898, he abruptly resigned, organized the 1st Volunteer Cavalry, known as the
Rough Riders, and took them to Cuba that year.
Roosevelt's leadership was spectacular. Disdaining army red tape and even
orders, his colourful exploits, especially in the Battle
of Santiago, made him something of a national hero. (see also Index:
Republican Party, Spanish-American
War)
Roosevelt returned home just when Thomas C.
Platt, the Republican boss of New York, was looking for a respectable
candidate for governor. Platt distrusted him, but, upon Roosevelt's promise that
he would not attack the machine, he was easily elected. An excellent governor,
he removed several corrupt politicians from office and over Platt's opposition
secured a corporation franchise tax and a civil service system. Enraged, Platt
maneuvered Roosevelt into the 1900 nomination for vice president on the McKinley
ticket and thus secured his elimination from state politics.
McKinley and Roosevelt won, but Roosevelt was completely bored by his
powerless office until Sept. 14, 1901, when McKinley died after being shot by an
assassin, and he himself became president. Although Roosevelt announced that
there would be no change in policy, it soon became apparent that a new
life-style had been introduced at the White House. Guest lists were expanded to
include cowboys, prizefighters, explorers, and distinguished artists. Young,
college-educated men were appointed to administrative positions. Presidential
speeches overflowed with indignation and moral righteousness. It soon became
apparent that Teddy--as he was known nationwide--was enjoying himself immensely.
But for all the office's satisfactions, Roosevelt also had reasons for subdued
reflection. He was always conscious that he had become president by accident,
and his chief ambition was to be elected in 1904. A highly sensitive politician,
he was aware that William Jennings Bryan's defeat for the presidency in 1896 had
not quieted the popular demands that he represented for control of the trusts,
regulation of railroads, and a reduction of
import duties. But he also knew that both houses of Congress were controlled by
conservative Republicans bitterly opposed to all reforms. He met this perplexing
situation by asking for little legislation and by using executive power in
appeasing the rising popular discontent.
The Square Deal.
In 1902 Roosevelt took three steps that virtually assured his
reelection. From Congress he asked for the establishment of a Bureau
of Corporations with powers to inspect the books of all businesses
engaged in interstate commerce. Even this limited measure was resisted by
leading Republican conservatives; the President secured its passage only by
promising not to ask for any further regulatory measures. But this bargain did
not keep Roosevelt from further executive actions, and on February 18, in one
brilliant stroke, he revived the all-but-forgotten Sherman Anti-Trust Act by
bringing successful suit against the Northern
Securities Company. Roosevelt pursued his policy of
"trust-busting" by bringing suit against 43 other major corporations
during the following seven years. (see also Index: Sherman
Antitrust Act, antitrust law )
In the fall of 1902 Roosevelt again set an important precedent by
intervening in the anthracite coal strike. When the strike threatened to result
in cold homes, schools, and hospitals, he requested that representatives of
capital and labour meet in the White House and
accept mediation. By threatening to use the army to operate the mines he won an
arbitration agreement that included a modest pay increase for the miners. Never
before had the federal government intervened in a labour struggle except to
assure the operation of a governmental service or to protect property. Roosevelt
promptly labeled his actions against industry and indirectly for labour a
manifestation of a "Square Deal"
between labour and capital. In the long run, however, the most significant
aspects of his actions were the precedents that they set for governmental
intervention in the affairs of business and labour for the public interest.
Once overwhelmingly elected in 1904 as president in his own right,
Roosevelt immediately asked Congress for substantial powers to regulate
interstate railroad rates. The Hepburn Act of
1906, giving the Interstate Commerce Commission
authority to set maximum rates, created the first of the government's regulatory
commissions and thus was a milestone on the long road to the modern
social-service state.
Roosevelt's pressure on Congress also led to the passage of the Pure
Food and Drug and the Meat Inspection acts
(1906) which laid the basis for the modern concept of consumer
protection. Responding to the rapid disappearance of the federal domain,
Congress had empowered the president 15 years before to convert portions of the
remaining land to national forests. Under Roosevelt's three predecessors only
about 40,000,000 ac (16,000,000 ha) had been transferred. Roosevelt not only
rapidly accelerated the pace but also broadened the powers of the act to reserve
for future generations parks and mineral, oil, and coal lands, as well as
waterpower sites. In seven years, 194,000,000 additional acres of the federal
domain were closed to commercial development.
Foreign policy.
In international affairs Roosevelt believed that strong countries
survived while weak ones perished. He also sensed that the relatively peaceful
period that had preceded his administration was being replaced by one in which
force was the principal arbiter. Every year he asked for larger naval
appropriations, and to induce Congress to grant him new ships he occasionally
exaggerated the seriousness of international incidents. By the end of his term
Roosevelt had built the U.S. Navy into a major sea force. (see also Index:
United States Navy, The)
Twice during Roosevelt's years in office European powers threatened
intervention in Venezuela and once in the Dominican Republic, presumably to
collect debts owed to their nationals. To meet a threat of possible permanent
intervention the secretary of war, Elihu Root,
and Roosevelt framed a policy statement in 1904 that eventually became known as
the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe
Doctrine. It stated that not only would the United States prohibit
non-American intervention in Latin-American
affairs but it would also police the area and guarantee that these countries met
their international obligations. The corollary sanctioning U.S. intervention was
to be applied in 1905 when, without Congressional approval, Roosevelt forced the
Dominican Republic to accept the appointment of
a U.S. "economic advisor," who quickly became the financial director
of the small state.
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"World's Constable," cartoon depicting Roosevelt brandishing a
"big stick" to police the world,. . .
The
Granger Collection, New York City
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Quoting an African proverb, Roosevelt once said that the proper way to
conduct foreign affairs was to "speak softly and carry a big stick."
Roosevelt was to use big-stick diplomacy again in the acquisition of the Panama
Canal Zone from Colombia in 1903, in the
formation of a provisional government in Cuba in 1906, and to some extent in the
quarrel with Canada over the Alaskan and Canadian border. He also played a
notable part in inspiring the subsequent Panamanian revolution that assured U.S.
control of the zone and enabled the United States to start construction of the
canal before the presidential election of 1904. (see also Index: Big
Stick Policy)
If Roosevelt's dealings with small countries were often brusque, his
negotiations with major powers were characterized by far more caution. The U.S.
Pacific position, he said in 1903, "is such as to insure our peaceful
domination of its waters." But the steadily rising power of Japan caused
him to revise that estimate. His efforts to resolve the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05 included bringing both countries to
the Portsmouth Peace Conference and mediating between them. His direct motive,
however, was to construct a balance of power in East Asia that might peacefully
aid U.S. interests. He helped to allay the friction caused by anti-Japanese
sentiment in California by introducing the so-called "Gentlemen's
Agreement" of 1907, restricting Japanese immigration to the United
States. By another informal executive agreement, Japan accepted the U.S.
position in the Philippines while the United
States recognized the Japanese conquest and occupation of Korea. Later, in 1910,
Roosevelt became convinced that the Philippines were indefensible against a
Japanese thrust and that there was no hope of American "dominance" in
East Asian waters. (see also Index: Portsmouth,
Treaty of)
During his last years as president, Roosevelt was worried by the
possibility of a general European war. Because he saw British and U.S. interests
generally coinciding, he was strongly inclined to support Great Britain whenever
it would not jeopardize official neutrality, violation of which would have
brought strong protest from Congress and the country. The secret instructions
given to the U.S. representatives to the Algeciras
Conference of 1906, called to prevent a European war over Morocco, were
therefore ambiguous. The envoys were told to maintain American neutrality but
also to do nothing that would imperil the existing Franco-British understanding,
the continuation of which was "to the best interest of the United
States." But, for all the talk of neutrality, Roosevelt had in effect
deviated from the traditional position of neutrality in non-American affairs.
U.S. representatives had attended a strictly European political conference;
their actions favoured Great Britain and France as against Germany; and by
signing the agreement the United States presumably undertook to sustain it.
Algeciras pointed unerringly toward U.S. entry into World War I on the side of
the Allied powers.
Last years as president.
The end of Roosevelt's presidency was anything but calm. His crusade
against "race suicide," prompted by his alarm at the decreasing birth
rate, his public indictment of amateur naturalists, and his order to the
government printers to use a simplified system of spelling all developed into
national arguments. Especially after the financial panic of 1907, his quarrels
with Congress became more vehement. His rather high-handed disciplining of a
black regiment involved in a riot at Brownsville, Texas, and his suggestion that
members of Congress who were opposed to increasing the secret-service funds had
something to hide produced bitter controversy. But most of the trouble with
Congress came from the split that had developed in his party between the
Roosevelt progressives and the party's conservatives, who blamed the financial
panic of 1907 on Roosevelt's attacks on big industry. (see also Index: Brownsville
Affair)
Later years.
After leaving the White House in March 1909, Roosevelt took a 10-month
hunting trip through Africa and made a grand tour of Europe. On his return he
was reluctantly drawn into politics. Though he attempted to support both his old
progressive friends and President William Howard Taft,
the two men soon were violently opposed over policy matters. The conflict became
personal in October 1910 when Taft authorized an antitrust suit against the U.S.
Steel Corporation regarding a merger to which Roosevelt as president had tacitly
agreed. Personal animosity and the developing split in the Republican Party
finally prompted Roosevelt to contest Taft's 1912 renomination. The resulting
bitter campaign and convention practically ensured a Democratic victory.
Roosevelt himself made that outcome inevitable by founding the Progressive Party
and running for president as an independent after he had lost the Republican
nomination. In seeking votes, the former president, through both logic and
necessity, was forced to radical proposals. Both the Progressive platform and
its candidates' campaign for a "New
Nationalism" looked forward to a powerful regulatory and
social-service state. The results of the campaign were as expected, with Woodrow
Wilson, the Democratic candidate, winning by a large electoral vote. (see
also Index: USS, Inc., , Bull
Moose Party)
Because the Progressive Party had managed to elect only a handful of
candidates to minor offices, Roosevelt knew immediately that it was doomed. He
kept it alive for bargaining purposes and, in the meantime, occupied himself
with an expedition into the Brazilian jungles and with writing. After World War
I broke out, he became a strong partisan of the Allied cause. Although ambitious
for the 1916 Republican nomination, he was ready to support almost any candidate
who opposed Wilson and who was not personally involved in his own defeat in
1912. Amid much bitterness he abandoned the Progressive Party and vigorously
supported the Republican candidate, Charles Evans
Hughes, but again his efforts ended in failure. His anger against Wilson
increased when his offer to lead a volunteer division to France was rejected.
Although he had previously supported an international peace-keeping
organization, he was adamantly opposed to Wilson's League. By 1918 he felt that
the Republicans might nominate him for president in the next election, but the
years of inordinate activity had taken their toll, and he died suddenly in his
sleep in 1919.
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·ç½ºº§Æ® (Theodore Roosevelt), º°ÄªÀº Teddy Roosevelt.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Roosevelt's 2,000 published works include several books and hundreds of
articles on history, politics, travel, and natural history; many of them are
collected in The Works of Theodore Roosevelt, memorial ed. 24 vol.,
(1923-26), which also includes the most comprehensive collection of his more
than 150,000 personal letters. A superb collection of his more important letters
appears in Elting E. Morison (compiler and ed.), The Letters of Theodore
Roosevelt, 8 vol. (1951-54). A Bully Father: Theodore Roosevelt's Letters
to His Children (1995), shows his affection for his offspring.
Biographies include Edmund Morris, The Rise of Theodore Roosevelt
(1979); William H. Harbaugh, The Life and Times of Theodore Roosevelt,
new rev. ed. (1975); John Milton Cooper, The Warrior and the Priest: Woodrow
Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt (1983); and Nathan Miller, Theodore
Roosevelt: A Life (1992). Henry F. Pringle, Theodore Roosevelt, rev.
ed. (1956), although brilliantly written, is perhaps prejudiced against its
subject. Comprehensive works on his early life include Carleton Putnam, Theodore
Roosevelt (1958), covering the years 1858 to 1886; and David McCullough, Mornings
on Horseback (1981).
Particularly brilliant short interpretations are G. Wallace Chessman, Theodore
Roosevelt and the Politics of Power (1969); and John Morton Blum, The
Republican Roosevelt, 2nd ed. (1977). David H. Burton, The Learned
Presidency: Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, Woodrow Wilson (1988),
advances the concept that the philosophies of these three presidents helped
transform the passive presidencies of the 19th century into the dynamic
presidencies of the 20th century. Other special studies of value are George E.
Mowry, Theodore Roosevelt and the Progressive Movement (1946); Howard K.
Beale, Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power (1956);
G. Wallace Chessman, Governor Theodore Roosevelt (1965); Frederick W.
Marks III, Velvet on Iron: The Diplomacy of Theodore Roosevelt (1979);
Lewis L. Gould, The Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt (1991); and H. Paul
Jeffers, Commissioner Roosevelt: The Story of Theodore Roosevelt and the New
York City Police, 1895-1897 (1994), and Colonel Roosevelt: Theodore
Roosevelt Goes to War, 1897-1898 (1996), covering Roosevelt's participation
in the Spanish-American War.
General histories of Roosevelt's times are Harold Underwood Faulkner, The
Quest for Social Justice, 1898-1914 (1931); George E. Mowry, The Era of
Theodore Roosevelt, 1900-1912 (1958); and Richard H. Collin, Theodore
Roosevelt: Culture, Diplomacy, and Expansion: A New View of American Imperialism
(1985).
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