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Pauling, Linus, in full LINUS CARL PAULING (b.
Feb. 28, 1901, Portland, Ore., U.S.--d. Aug. 19, 1994, Big Sur, Calif.),
American chemist who applied quantum mechanics to the study of molecular
structures, particularly in connection with chemical bonding. Pauling received
two Nobel Prizes, one for Chemistry in 1954 and another for Peace in 1962 (the
latter in recognition of his efforts on behalf of the international control of
nuclear weapons and his campaigns against nuclear testing).
Education.
Pauling received his B.S. in chemical engineering at Oregon State
Agricultural College (now Oregon State University), Corvallis, in 1922, then
became a graduate assistant at the California Institute of Technology, Pasadena,
where he took his Ph.D. in physical chemistry in 1925. For two years he was a
postdoctoral fellow in Europe, working in the laboratories of such noted
scientists as Arnold Sommerfeld in Munich, Niels Bohr in Copenhagen, Erwin Schrödinger
in Zürich, and Sir William Henry Bragg in London. He returned to the
California Institute of Technology as assistant professor of chemistry in 1927,
becoming full professor in 1931 and serving as director of the Gates and Crellin
Laboratories of Chemistry between 1936 and 1958.
Scientific
achievements
Pauling's chemical work, for which he received his first Nobel Prize, dealt
with the many aspects of molecular structure, ranging from simple molecules
to proteins. He was among the first to apply the principles of quantum
mechanics to the structure of molecules and effectively utilized X-ray
diffraction (the alteration of the straight course of X rays by the interference
of an atom or group of atoms), electron diffraction (interference with the
course of electrons by atoms), magnetic effects, and the heat involved in
forming chemical compounds for the calculation of interatomic distances and the
angles between chemical bonds. He was successful in relating the distances and
angles between chemical bonds to molecular characteristics and to interaction
between molecules.
In order to account for the equivalency of the four bonds around the carbon
atom, he introduced the concept of hybrid
orbitals, in which electron orbits are moved from their original
positions by mutual repulsion. Pauling also recognized the presence of hybrid
orbitals in the coordination of ions or groups of ions in a definite geometric
arrangement about a central ion. His theory of directed (positive and negative)
valence (the capacity of an atom to combine with other atoms) was an outgrowth
of his early work, as was the concept of the partial ionic character of covalent
bonds--i.e., atoms sharing electrons. His empirical concept of
electronegativity, the power of attraction for electrons in a covalent bond, was
useful in further clarification of these problems. In the case of compounds the
molecules of which cannot be represented unambiguously by a single structure, he
introduced the concept of resonance
hybrids whereby the true structure of the molecule is regarded as an
intermediate state between two or more depictable structures. The resonance
theory came under heavy but unsuccessful attack in the U.S.S.R. in 1951 when
doctrinaire scientists of the Communist Party argued that it conflicted with
dialectical materialist principles. The ideas on bonding were developed serially
in his numerous journal articles during his early career and were consolidated
in his book The Nature of the Chemical
Bond, and the Structure of Molecules and Crystals (1939), which grew out of
lectures he gave in 1937 and 1938. The textbook proved to be one of the most
influential of the century.
In 1934 Pauling began to apply his knowledge of molecular structure to the
complex molecules of living tissues, particularly in connection with proteins.
His studies of the magnetic susceptibility (the ease with which something can be
magnetized) of the hemoglobin (the red protein in
the red cells of the blood) molecule during oxygenation inaugurated a succession
of studies that led to a theory of native proteins (active proteins as found in
living organisms), denatured proteins (ones that through heat or chemical action
have broken some of their bonds), and coagulated (solidified) proteins. He
became interested in proteins
involved in immunological reactions and in 1940, with a German-born biologist, Max
Delbrück, developed a concept of molecular complementarity in
antibody-antigen reactions (in which the production of antibodies is stimulated
in an organism when foreign substances called antigens are introduced). He
recognized the importance of hydrogen bonding in protein structure and in
interactions between macromolecules (extremely large molecules usually built
from repeating groups of smaller molecules). His work with an American chemist, Robert
B. Corey, on the structure of amino acids and polypeptides (the chief
components of proteins) led him to recognize that certain proteins have helical
structures. (see also Index: helix)
Late in the 1940s Pauling became interested in sickle-cell
anemia when he learned that the red blood corpuscles show their abnormal
crescent shape only in venous blood. Intuitively, he reasoned that the cause of
the cell deformity must lie in a genetic defect associated with hemoglobin
formation. His studies showed that the sickling effect was nullified by the
presence of oxygen in the arterial blood.
Pauling also developed a molecular model for the explanation of anesthesia
that was made public in 1961, introduced ideas toward the understanding of
memory processes, and in 1965 postulated a theory of the atomic nucleus that had
certain advantages over other models. His scientific career was characterized by
the application of intuitive guesses aided by a phenomenal memory of chemical
facts. Pauling referred to this as the stochastic method (from the Greek
"apt to divine the truth by conjecture").
Campaign
for nuclear weapons disarmament.
Following the development of nuclear weapons, Pauling became deeply concerned
about the possible hazards of exposure to radiation associated with weapons testing.
He expressed his view in his book No More War! (1958). In January 1958 he
brought to the United Nations a petition signed by 11,021 scientists from all
over the world urging an end to nuclear weapons tests. In 1963 he left the
California Institute of Technology to become a staff member of the Center for
the Study of Democratic Institutions at Santa Barbara, where he largely devoted
himself to the study of problems of peace and war. No official reason was given
for the award of the Peace Prize for 1962 to Pauling in 1963, but it is widely
assumed that he received it for his efforts in behalf of the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty
that was concluded in the same year. His pacifist views estranged him from many
scientists with whom he had been closely associated during the years of World
War II, when he had served as a civilian with the Office of Scientific Research
and Development. Though he was equally opposed to nuclear testing by the United
States and the Soviet Union, his loyalty to the U.S. was questioned in some
conservative political circles. (see also Index:
pacifism)
Later
years.
In 1969 Pauling resigned a position he had held for two years with the
University of California, San Diego, in protest against the educational policies
of the governor of California. He joined the chemistry department of Stanford
University in California, where he was named professor emeritus in 1974. In 1973
he founded the Linus Pauling Institute of Science and Medicine to study the
prevention and treatment of illness through the intake of optimum doses of
vitamins and minerals, especially the daily intake of megadoses (6 to 18 grams)
of vitamin C. His theories on vitamin C and
nutrition therapy, which he promoted in his books Vitamin
C and the Common Cold (1970), Cancer
and Vitamin C (1979), and How to Live
Longer and Feel Better (1986), provoked much controversy in the medical
community.
In addition to winning two Nobel Prizes, Pauling was widely honoured in
scientific and pacifist circles. He held guest appointments in many other
universities, both at home and abroad. His success as a scientist was based on
his capacity for quick insight into new problems, his ability to recognize
interrelationships, and the courage to put forward unorthodox ideas. While his
concepts were not always correct, they always stimulated discussion and
investigation. (A.J.I./
Ed.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Anthony Serafini, Linus Pauling (1989).
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- Structural Chemistry and Molecular Biology : A. Rich¡¤N. Davidson
(eds.), 1968
- The Nature of the Chemical Bond, and the Structure of Molecules and
Crystals : L. Pauling, 1939
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