Nansen, Fridtjof (b.
Oct. 10, 1861, Store-Fr?n, near Kristiania [now Oslo], Nor.--d. May 13, 1930, Lysaker,
near Oslo), Norwegian explorer, oceanographer, statesman, and humanitarian who led a
number of expeditions to the Arctic (1888, 1893, 1895-96) and oceanographic expeditions in the North Atlantic (1900,
1910-14). For his relief work after World War I he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace
(1922).
Early life.
Nansen went to school in Kristiania, where, in 1880, he passed his entrance
examination to the university. He chose to study zoology in the expectation that fieldwork
would give him the chance of an outdoor life and enable him to make use of his artistic
talents. Although scientific work was always closest to his heart, he first attained fame
as an explorer.
As a young man Nansen was a great outdoor athlete, an accomplished skater and
skier, and a keen hunter and fisherman. In 1882, when he joined the sealing ship Viking
for a voyage to the Greenland waters, Nansen first saw at a distance Greenland's mighty ice cap. It
occurred to him that it ought to be possible to cross it, and gradually he developed a
plan, which he announced in 1887. Instead of starting from the inhabited west coast, he
would start from the east coast and, by cutting off his means of retreat, would force
himself to go forward. The expedition of six from Norway started the crossing on Aug. 15,
1888. After enduring storms and intense cold, they reached the highest point of the
journey (8,920 feet [2,719 m]) on September 5 and struck the west coast at Ameralik fjord
on September 26. They were forced to winter at the settlement of Godth? (Nuuk), where
Nansen took the opportunity to study the Eskimos and gather material for his book Eskimoliv
(1891; Eskimo Life). The party returned home in triumph in May 1889.
In 1890 Nansen presented before the Norwegian Geographical Society a plan for an
even more hazardous expedition. Having collected evidence showing that the ice of the
polar sea drifted from Siberia toward Spitsbergen, he proposed to build a ship of such a
shape that it would be lifted but not crushed when caught by the ice. He proposed to let
this ship freeze in off eastern Siberia in order to be carried from there across the
Arctic Ocean to Spitsbergen by the currents. Though his plan was severely criticized by
contemporary Arctic explorers, the Norwegian Parliament granted two-thirds of the
estimated expenses, and the rest was raised by subscriptions from King Oscar II and
private individuals. His ship, Fram (i.e., "Forward"; now preserved outside Oslo), was built
according to his ideas. (see also Index: Arctic
Ocean)
With a complement of 13 men, the Fram sailed from Kristiania on June 24, 1893.
On September 22 it was enclosed by the ice at 78?0' N, 133?37' E; it froze in, and the
long drift began. It bore the pressure of the ice perfectly. On March 14, 1895, Nansen,
being satisfied that the Fram would continue to drift safely, left it in 84?' N,
102?27' E, and started northward with dogsleds and kayaks, accompanied by one F.H.
Johansen. On April 8 they turned back from 86?14' N, the highest latitude then yet
reached by man, and headed toward Franz Josef Land. As they approached the northern
islands, progress was hampered by open water and, because of the advanced season, they
wintered on Frederick Jackson Island (named by Nansen after the British Arctic
explorer), where they stayed from Aug. 26, 1895, to May 19, 1896. They built a hut of
stone and covered it with a roof of walrus hides and lived during the winter mainly on
polar bear and walrus meat, using the blubber as fuel. On their way to Spitsbergen they
encountered Frederick Jackson and his party of the Jackson-Harmsworth expedition, on June 17, and returned to
Norway in his ship Windward, reaching Vard?on August 13. The Fram also
reached Norway safely, having drifted north to 85?57'. Nansen and his companions
on board the Fram were given a rousing welcome, which reached its climax on their
arrival in Kristiania on September 9. His two-volume account of the expedition, Fram
over Polhavet (Farthest North), appeared in 1897.
Scientific work.
Nansen's success as an explorer was due largely to his careful evaluation of the
difficulties that might be encountered, his clear reasoning, which was never influenced by
the opinions of others, his willingness to accept a calculated risk, his thorough
planning, and his meticulous attention to detail. Many of these traits can be recognized
in his scientific writings. In 1882 he was appointed curator of zoology at the Bergen
museum. He wrote papers on zoological and histological subjects, illustrated by excellent
drawings. For one of his papers, "The Structure and Combination of Histological
Elements of the Central Nervous System" (1887), the university in Kristiania
conferred upon him the degree of doctor of philosophy. Though the paper contained so many
novel interpretations that the committee that had to examine it accepted it with doubt, it
is now considered a classic.
On his return from the Fram expedition in 1896, a professorship in zoology was
established for Nansen at the university in Kristiania, but his interests shifted
from zoology to physical oceanography, and in 1908 his status was changed to professor of
oceanography. During 1896-1917 he
devoted most of his time and energy to scientific work. He edited the report of the
scientific results of his expedition and himself wrote some of the most important parts.
He participated in the establishment of the International Council for the Exploration of
the Sea and for some time directed the council's central laboratory in Kristiania. In 1900
he joined the Michael Sars on a cruise in the Norwegian Sea. In 1910 he made a
cruise in the Fridtjof through the northeastern North Atlantic; in 1912 he
visited the Spitsbergen waters on board his own yacht Veslemoy; and in 1914 he
joined B. Helland-Hansen on an oceanographic cruise to the Azores in the Armauer
Hansen. In 1913 Nansen traveled through the Barents Sea and the Kara Sea to the
mouth of the Yenisey River and back through Siberia. He published the results of his
cruises in numerous papers, partly in cooperation with Helland-Hansen. His lasting
contributions to oceanography comprise improvement and design of instruments, explanation
of the wind-driven currents of the seas, discussions of the waters of the Arctic, and
explanation of the manner in which deep- and bottom-water is formed.
Nansen also dealt with other subjects: for instance, his Nord i t?eheimen, 2
vol. (1911; In Northern Mists) gave a critical review of the exploration of the
northern regions from early times up to the beginning of the 16th century.
Statesman and humanitarian.
As Nansen grew older he became more interested in the relations between
individuals and nations. In 1905 he took a lively part in the discussion about the
dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden. His attitude may be summarized by his
words: "Any union in which the one people is restrained in exercising its freedom is
and will remain a danger." On the establishment of the Norwegian monarchy, Nansen
was
appointed its first minister in London (1906-08). In 1917, during World War I, he was
appointed head of a Norwegian commission to the United States and negotiated a
satisfactory agreement with the U.S. government about the import of essential supplies to
Norway.
At the first assembly of the League of Nations in 1920, the Norwegian delegation was
headed by Nansen, who was to remain one of the outstanding members of the assembly
until his death. In April 1920 the council of the League of Nations gave Nansen his
first great task, appointing him high commissioner responsible for the repatriation from
Russia of about 500,000 prisoners of war from the former German and Austro-Hungarian
armies. The Soviet government would not recognize the League of Nations but negotiated
with Nansen personally, and in September 1922 he reported to the third assembly of
the League that his task was completed and that 427,886 prisoners of war had been
repatriated.
In August 1921 Nansen was asked by the International Committee of the Red Cross
to direct an effort to bring relief to famine-stricken Russia. He accepted, and on August
15 a conference in Geneva, at which 13 governments and 48 Red Cross organizations were represented,
appointed him high commissioner of this new venture. On August 27 he concluded an
agreement with the Soviet government authorizing him to open in Moscow an office of the
"International Russian Relief Executive." Nansen's request to the League
for financial assistance was turned down, but by appealing to private organizations and by
addressing large public meetings he succeeded in raising the necessary funds.
On July 5, 1922, on Nansen's initiative, an international agreement was signed
in Geneva introducing the identification card for displaced persons known as the
"Nansen passport." In 1931
the Nansen International Office for Refugees was created in Geneva (after Nansen's
death); it cared mainly for anti-Communist ("White") Russians, for Armenians
from Turkey, and, later, for Jews from Nazi Germany.
In 1922 Nansen was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace; he used the prize money
for the furtherance of international relief work. The Nansen International Office
for Refugees won the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1938.
(H.U.S./Ed.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Jon Sorensen, The Saga of Fridtjof Nansen (1932), is a good, relatively
brief biography. Liv Nansen H?er, Nansen: A Family Portrait (1957),
was written by his daughter.
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