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Reconstruction
(1865-77) , in U.S. history, period
during and after the American Civil War in which
attempts were made to solve the political, social, and economic problems arising
from the readmission to the Union of the 11 Confederate states that had seceded
at or before the outbreak of war. (see also American Civil War, South,
the)
As early as 1862, Pres. Abraham
Lincoln had appointed provisional military governors for Louisiana,
Tennessee, and North Carolina. The following year, initial steps were taken to
reestablish governments in newly occupied states in which at least 10 percent of
the voting population had taken the prescribed oath of allegiance. Aware that
the presidential plan omitted any provision for social or economic
reconstruction, the Radical Republicans in
Congress resented such a lenient political arrangement under solely executive
jurisdiction. As a result, the stricter Wade-Davis Bill
(q.v.) was passed in 1864 but
pocket vetoed by the President.
After Lincoln's assassination (April
1865), Pres. Andrew Johnson further alienated
Congress by continuing Lincoln's moderate policies. The Fourteenth
Amendment, defining national citizenship so as to include blacks, passed
Congress in June 1866 and was ratified, despite rejection by most Southern
states (July 28, 1868). In response to Johnson's intemperate outbursts against
the opposition as well as to several reactionary developments in the South (e.g.,
race riots and passage of the repugnant black codes severely
restricting rights of blacks), the North gave a smashing victory to the Radical
Republicans in the 1866 congressional election.
That victory launched the era of
congressional Reconstruction (usually called Radical
Reconstruction), which lasted 10 years starting with the Reconstruction
Acts of 1867. Under that legislation, the 10 remaining Southern states
(Tennessee had been readmitted to the Union in 1866) were divided into five
military districts; and, under supervision of the U.S. Army, all were readmitted
between 1868 and 1870. Each state had to accept the Fourteenth or, if readmitted
after its passage, the Fifteenth Constitutional Amendment, intended to ensure civil
rights of the freedmen. The newly created state governments were
generally Republican in character and were governed by political coalitions of
blacks, carpetbaggers (Northerners who had gone
into the South), and scalawags (Southerners who
collaborated with the blacks and carpetbaggers). The Republican governments of
the former Confederate states were seen by most Southern whites as artificial
creations imposed from without, and the conservative element in the region
remained hostile to them. Southerners particularly resented the activities of
the Freedmen's Bureau (q.v.), which Congress had established to feed, protect, and help
educate the newly emancipated blacks. This resentment led to formation of secret
terroristic organizations, such as the Ku Klux Klan and
the Knights of the White Camelia. The use of fraud, violence, and intimidation
helped Southern conservatives regain control of their state governments, and, by
the time the last Federal troops had been withdrawn in 1877, the Democratic
Party was back in power. (see also Freedmen's
Bureau, Ku Klux Klan, Knights
of the White Camelia)
About 1900, many U.S. historians
espoused a theory of racial inferiority of blacks. The Reconstruction
governments were viewed as an abyss of corruption resulting from Northern
vindictiveness and the desire for political and economic domination. Later,
revisionist historians noted that not only was public and private dishonesty
widespread in all regions of the country at that time but also that a number of
constructive reforms actually were introduced into the South during that period:
courts were reorganized, judicial procedures improved, public-school systems
established, and more feasible methods of taxation devised. Many provisions of
the state constitutions adopted during the postwar years have continued in
existence.
The Reconstruction experience led to an
increase in sectional bitterness, an intensification of the racial issue, and
the development of one-party politics in the South. Scholarship has suggested
that the most fundamental failure of Reconstruction was in not effecting a
distribution of land in the South that would have offered an economic base to
support the newly won political rights of black citizens.
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