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Adams, John Quincy, (b. July 11, 1767, Braintree, Mass.--d.
Feb. 23, 1848, Washington, D.C.), eldest son of Pres. John Adams and sixth
president of the United States (1825-29). In his pre-presidential years he was
one of America's greatest diplomats (formulating, among other things, what came
to be called the Monroe Doctrine); in his post-presidential years (as U.S.
congressman, 1831-48) he conducted a consistent and often dramatic fight against
the expansion of slavery.
John Quincy Adams entered the world at
the same time his maternal great-grandfather, John Quincy, for many years a
prominent member of the Massachusetts legislature, was leaving it; hence his
name. He grew up as a child of the American Revolution. He watched the Battle of
Bunker Hill from Penn's Hill and heard the cannons roar across the Back Bay. His
patriot father, at that time a delegate to the Continental Congress, and his
patriot mother, one of the intellectual women of those times, had a strong
molding influence on his education after the war had deprived Braintree of its
only schoolmaster. In 1778 and again in 1780 the boy accompanied his father to
Europe. He studied at a private school in Paris in 1778-79 and at the University
of Leiden in 1780. Thus, at an early age he acquired an excellent knowledge of
the French language and a smattering of Dutch. In 1780, also, he began to keep
regularly the diary that forms so conspicuous a record of the doings of himself
and his contemporaries through the next 60 years of American history.
In 1781, at the age of 14, he
accompanied Francis Dana, United States envoy to Russia, as his private
secretary and interpreter of French. Dana, after lingering for more than a year
in St. Petersburg, was not received by the Russian government; and in 1782
Adams, returning by way of Scandinavia, Hanover, and the Netherlands, joined his
father in Paris. There he acted, in an informal way, as an additional secretary
to the American commissioners in the negotiation of the treaty of peace that
concluded the American Revolution. Instead of remaining in London with his
father, who had been appointed United States minister to the Court of St.
James's, he chose to return to Massachusetts, where he was graduated from
Harvard College in 1787. He then read law at Newburyport under the tutelage of
Theophilus Parsons, and in 1790 he was admitted to the bar in Boston. While
struggling for a practice, he wrote a series of articles for the newspapers in
which he controverted some of the doctrines in Thomas Paine's "Rights of
Man." In another later series he ably supported the neutrality policy of George
Washington's administration as it faced the war that broke out between
France and England in 1793. These articles were brought to President
Washington's attention and resulted in Adams' appointment as U.S. minister to
the Netherlands in May 1794.
The Hague was then the best diplomatic
listening post in Europe for the war of the first coalition against
Revolutionary France. Young Adams' official dispatches to the Secretary of State
and his informal letters to his father, who was now the vice president, kept the
government well informed of the diplomatic activities and wars of the distressed
Continent and the danger of becoming involved in the European vortex. These
letters were also read by President Washington: some of Adams' phrases, in fact,
appeared in Washington's "Farewell Address" of 1796. During the
absence of the regular minister at London, Thomas Pinckney, Adams transacted
public business with the British Foreign Office relating to exchange of
ratifications of the Jay Treaty of 1794 between the United States and Great
Britain. In 1796 Washington, who came to regard young Adams as the ablest
officer in the foreign service, appointed him minister to Portugal, but before
his departure his father, John Adams, became
president and changed the young diplomat's destination to Prussia.
John Quincy Adams was married in London
in 1797, on the eve of his departure for Berlin, to Louisa Catherine Johnson
(1775-1852), daughter of the United States consul Joshua Johnson, a Marylander
by birth, and his wife, Katherine Nuth, an Englishwoman.
While in Berlin, Adams negotiated (1799)
a treaty of amity and commerce with Prussia. Recalled from Berlin by President
Adams after the election of Thomas Jefferson to
the presidency in 1800, the younger Adams reached Boston in 1801 and the next
year was elected to the Massachusetts Senate. In 1803 the Massachusetts
legislature elected him as a member of the Senate of the United States.
Up to this time John Quincy Adams was
regarded as belonging to the Federalist Party,
but he found its general policy displeasing. He was frowned upon as the son of
his father by the followers of Alexander Hamilton
and by reactionary groups, and he soon found himself practically powerless as an
unpopular member of an unpopular minority. Actually he was not then, and indeed
never was, a strict party man; all through his life, ever aspiring to higher
public service, he considered himself a "man of my whole country."
Adams arrived in Washington too late to vote for ratification of the treaty for
the purchase of Louisiana, opposed by the other Federalist senators, but he
voted for the appropriations to carry it into effect and announced that he would
have voted for the purchase treaty itself. Nevertheless, he joined his
Federalist colleagues in voting against a bill to enable the President to place
officials of his own appointment in control of the newly acquired territory;
such a bill, Adams vainly protested, overstepped the constitutional powers of
the presidency, violated the right of self-government, and imposed taxation
without representation. In December 1807 he supported President Jefferson's
suggestion of an embargo prohibiting all foreign commerce (an attempt to gain
British recognition of American rights) and vigorously urged instant action,
saying: "The President has recommended the measure on his high
responsibility. I would not consider, I would not deliberate; I would act!"
Within five hours the Senate had passed the embargo bill and sent it to the
House of Representatives. Support of this measure, hated by the Federalists and
unpopular in New England because it stifled the region's economy, cost Adams his
seat in the Senate. His successor was chosen on June 3, 1808, several months
before the usual time of electing a senator for the next term, and five days
later Adams resigned. In the same year he attended the Republican congressional
caucus, which nominated James Madison for the
presidency, and thus allied himself with that party. From 1806 to 1809 Adams was
Boylston professor of rhetoric and oratory at Harvard College. (see also Index: Louisiana Purchase)
In 1809 President Madison sent Adams to
Russia to represent the United States at the court of the tsars. He arrived at
St. Petersburg at the psychological moment when the Tsar had made up his mind to
break with Napoleon. Adams therefore met with a favourable reception and a
disposition to further the interests of American commerce in every possible way.
From this vantage point he watched and reported Napoleon's invasion of Russia
and the final disastrous retreat and dissolution of France's grande armée. On the outbreak of the war between the United
States and England in 1812, he was still at St. Petersburg. That September the
Russian government suggested that the Tsar was willing to act as mediator
between the two belligerents. Madison precipitately accepted this proposition
and sent Albert Gallatin and James Bayard to act
as commissioners with Adams, but England would have nothing to do with it. In
August 1814, however, these gentlemen, with Henry Clay
and Jonathan Russell, began negotiations with English commissioners that
resulted in the signing of the Treaty of Ghent
on December 24 of that year. Adams then visited Paris, where he witnessed the
return of Napoleon from Elba, and next went to London, where, with Clay and
Gallatin, he negotiated (1815) a "Convention to Regulate Commerce and
Navigation." Soon afterward he became U.S. minister to Great Britain, as
his father had been before him, and as his son, Charles Francis Adams, was to be
after him. After accomplishing little in London, he returned to the United
States in the summer of 1817 to become secretary of state in the Cabinet of
Pres. James Monroe. This appointment was primarily because of his diplomatic
experience but also because of the President's desire to have a sectionally
well-balanced Cabinet in what came to be known as the Era
of Good Feeling.
As secretary of state, Adams played the
leading part in the acquisition of Florida. Ever
since the acquisition of Louisiana, successive administrations had sought to
include at least a part of Florida in that purchase. In 1819, after long
negotiations, Adams succeeded in getting the Spanish minister to agree to a
treaty in which Spain would abandon all claims to territory east of the
Mississippi, the United States would relinquish all claim to what is now Texas,
and a boundary of the United States would be drawn (for the first time) from the
Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. This Transcontinental
Treaty was perhaps the greatest victory ever won by a single man in the
diplomatic history of the United States. Adams himself was responsible for the
idea of extending the country's northern boundary westward from the Rocky
Mountains to the Pacific--considered a stroke of diplomatic genius. To use his
own word, it marked a triumphant "epocha" in U.S. continental
expansion. Before the Spanish government ratified the Transcontinental Treaty in
1819, however, Mexico (including Texas) had thrown off allegiance to the mother
country, and the United States had occupied Florida by force of arms. As
secretary of state, Adams was also responsible for conclusion of the treaty of
1818 with Great Britain, laying down the northern boundary of the United States
from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains along the line of 49¡Æ N
latitude. Years later, as a member of the House of Representatives he supported
49¡Æ N latitude as the boundary of Oregon from the Rocky Mountains to the
Pacific Ocean: "I want that country for our Western pioneers."
President James K. Polk's Oregon treaty of 1846
drew that boundary along the line of 49¡Æ . The Monroe
Doctrine rightly bears the name of the president who in 1823 assumed the
responsibility for its promulgation, but it was the work of John Quincy Adams
more than of any other single man.
As President Monroe's second term drew
to a close in 1824, there was a lack of good feeling among his official
advisers, three of whom--Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, Secretary of War John
C. Calhoun, and Secretary of the Treasury William
H. Crawford--aspired to succeed him in his high office. Henry Clay,
speaker of the House, and General Andrew Jackson
were also candidates. Calhoun was nominated for the vice presidency. Of the
other four, Jackson received 99 electoral votes for the presidency, Adams 84,
Crawford 41, and Clay 37; because no one had a majority, the decision was made
by the House of Representatives, which was confined in its choice to the three
candidates who had received the largest number of votes. Clay, who had for years
assumed a censorious attitude toward Jackson, cast his influence for Adams,
whose election was thereby secured on the first ballot. A few days later Adams
offered Clay the office of secretary of state, which was accepted. The charge of
"bargain and corruption" followed, and the feud thus created between
Adams and Jackson greatly influenced the history of the United States.
Up to this point Adams' career had been
almost uniformly successful, but his presidency (1825-29), during which the
country prospered, was in most respects a political failure because of the
virulent opposition of the Jacksonians. In 1828 Jackson was elected president
over Adams. It was during Jackson's administration that irreconcilable
differences developed between the followers of Adams and the followers of
Jackson, the former becoming known as the National
Republicans, who, with the Anti-Masons,
were the precursors of the Whigs. In 1829 Adams retired to private life in the
town of Quincy, but only for a brief period; in 1830, supported largely by
members of the Anti-Mason movement (a political force formed initially in
opposition to Freemasonry), he was elected a
member of the national House of Representatives. When it was suggested to him
that his acceptance of this position would degrade a former president, Adams
replied that no person could be degraded by serving the people as a
representative in Congress or, he added, as a selectman of his town. He served
in the House of Representatives from 1831 until his death, in 1848. But he had
not abandoned his hopes for a reelection to the presidency--whether as nominee
of the Anti-Masonic Party (in which he was very active as long as that party had
political possibilities) or of the National Republican Party or of a union of
both or even of the later Whig Party--always in
his own mind as a "man of the whole nation." Gradually, these hopes
faded.
His long second career in Congress was
at least as important as his earlier career as a diplomat. Throughout, he was
conspicuous as an opponent of the expansion of slavery
and was at heart an Abolitionist, though he never became one in the political
sense of the word. In 1839 he presented to the House of Representatives a
resolution for a constitutional amendment providing that every child born in the
United States after July 4, 1842, should be born free; that, with the exception
of Florida, no new state should be admitted into the Union with slavery; and
that neither slavery nor the slave trade should exist in the District of
Columbia after July 4, 1845. The "gag rules,"
a resolution passed by Southern members of Congress against all discussion of
slavery in the House of Representatives, effectively blocked any discussion of
Adams' proposed amendment. His prolonged fight for the repeal of the gag rules
and for the right of petition to Congress for the mitigation or abolition of
slavery was one of the most dramatic contests in the history of Congress. These
petitions, from individuals and groups of individuals from all over the northern
states, were increasingly sent to Adams, and he dutifully presented them. Adams
contended that the gag rules were a direct violation of the First Amendment to
the federal Constitution, and he refused to be silenced on the question,
fighting indomitably for repeal, in spite of the bitter denunciation of his
opponents. Each year the number of anti-slavery petitions received and presented
by him grew in great numbers. Perhaps the climax was in 1837 when Adams
presented a petition from 22 slaves and, threatened by his opponents with
censure, defended himself with remarkable keenness and ability. At each session
the majority against him decreased until, in 1844, his motion to repeal the then
standing 21st (gag) rule of the House was carried by a vote of 108 to 80, and
his long battle was over.
Another spectacular contribution of
Adams to the anti-slavery cause was his championing of the cause of the Africans
of the slave ship Amistad--slaves
who had mutinied and escaped from their Spanish owners off the coast of Cuba and
brought the slave ship into United States waters near Long Island. Adams
defended these blacks as freemen before the Supreme Court in 1841 against
efforts of the administration of President Martin Van Buren to return them to
their masters and to inevitable death. Adams won their freedom.
As a member of Congress--in fact,
throughout his life--Adams supported the improvement of the arts and sciences
and the diffusion of knowledge; and he did much to conserve the bequest of James
Smithson (an eccentric Englishman) to the United States and to create and
endow the Smithsonian Institution with the money
from Smithson's estate.
Perhaps the most dramatic event in
Adams' life was its end. On Feb. 21, 1848, in the act of protesting an honorary
grant of swords by Congress to the generals who had won what Adams considered a
"most unrighteous war" with Mexico, he suffered a cerebral stroke,
fell unconscious to the floor of the House, and died two days later in the
Capitol building. His obsequies in Washington and in his native Massachusetts
assumed the character of a countrywide pageant of mourning.
Few men in American public life have
possessed more independence, more public spirit, and more ability than did
Adams; but throughout his political career he was handicapped by a certain
personal reserve and austerity and coolness of manner, which prevented him from
appealing to the imaginations and affections of the people. He had few intimate
friends, and not many men in American history have been regarded, during the
period of their lifetime, with so much hostility or attacked with so much
rancour by their political opponents. (S.F.Be.)
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S. F. Bemis ±Û
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Writings
of John Quincy Adams, ed. by Worthington Chauncy
Ford, 7 vol. (1913-17, reprinted 1968), collects works from 1779 to 1823.
Versions of his diaries include Charles Francis Adams (ed.), Memoirs
of John Quincy Adams, Comprising Portions of His Diary from 1795 to 1848, 12
vol. (1874-77, reprinted 1969); Allan Nevins (ed.), The
Diary of John Quincy Adams, 1794-1845 (1928, reissued 1969), a selection
from the longer work above; and David Grayson Allen
et.al. (eds.), Diary of John Quincy
Adams, 2 vol. (1981), Adams' diaries from the age of 12 to 21. Family
letters are published in L.H. Butterfield et
al. (eds.), Adams Family
Correspondence, 6 vol. (1963-93).
Biographies include John T. Morse, Jr., John
Quincy Adams (1882, reissued 1980); Bennett Champ Clark, John
Quincy Adams, "Old Man Eloquent" (1932); Samuel Flagg Bemis, John
Quincy Adams and the Foundations of American Foreign Policy (1949, reprinted
1981), a diplomatic biography, and John
Quincy Adams and the Union (1956, reprinted 1980), covering the period
1824-48; Marie B. Hecht, John Quincy
Adams: A Personal History of an Independent Man (1972, reissued 1995),
treating Adams' private relationships as well as his political life; and two
works focusing on the final 17 years of Adams' life, when he served as a member
of the U.S. House of Representatives: Leonard Falkner, The
President Who Wouldn't Retire (1967); and Leonard L. Richards, The
Life and Times of Congressman John Quincy Adams (1986).
Dexter Perkins, "John Quincy
Adams," in Samuel Flagg Bemis (ed.), The
American Secretaries of State and Their Diplomacy, vol. 4 (1928, reprinted
1963), treats his important prepresidential years. Mary W.M. Hargreaves, The
Presidency of John Quincy Adams (1985), focuses on the organization of the
Adams administration and its handling of domestic and foreign affairs. Greg
Russell, John Quincy Adams and the Public Virtues of Diplomacy (1995),
examines Adams' view of the relationship between ethics and statesmanship. Lynn
H. Parsons (compiler), John Quincy Adams:
A Bibliography (1993), includes a chapter of entries on Adams' associates
from throughout his career.
The life of Louisa Adams is covered in
Jack Shepherd, Cannibals of the Heart: A
Personal Biography of Louisa Catherine and John Quincy Adams (1980). The men
and women of this influential family are featured in Paul C. Nagel, Descent
from Glory: Four Generations of the John Adams Family (1983), and The
Adams Women: Abigail and Louisa Adams, Their Sisters and Daughters (1987). (S.F.Be./Ed.)
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