| abolitionism
. Despite its brutality and inhumanity,
the slave system aroused little protest until the 18th century, when rationalist
thinkers of the Enlightenment began to criticize it for its violation of the
rights of man, and Quaker and other evangelical religious groups condemned it
for its un-Christian qualities. By the late 18th century, moral disapproval of
slavery was widespread, and antislavery reformers won a number of deceptively
easy victories during this period. In Britain, Granville
Sharp secured a legal decision in 1772 that West Indian planters could
not hold slaves in Britain, since slavery was contrary to English law. In the United
States, all of the states north of Maryland abolished slavery between
1777 and 1804. But antislavery sentiments had little effect on the centres of
slavery themselves: the great plantations of the Deep South, the West Indies,
and South America. Turning their attention to these areas, British and American
abolitionists began working in the late 18th century to prohibit the importation
of African slaves into the British colonies and the United States. Under the
leadership of William Wilberforce and Thomas
Clarkson, these forces succeeded in getting the slave trade to the
British colonies abolished in 1807. The United States prohibited the importation
of slaves that same year, though widespread smuggling continued until about
1862. Antislavery forces then concentrated on
winning the emancipation of those populations already in slavery. They were
triumphant when slavery was abolished in the British West Indies by 1838 and in
French possessions 10 years later.
The situation in the United States was
more complex because slavery was a domestic rather than a colonial phenomenon,
being the social and economic base of the plantations of 11 Southern states.
Moreover, slavery had gained new vitality when an extremely profitable
cotton-based agriculture developed in the South in the early 19th century.
Reacting to abolitionist attacks that branded its "peculiar
institution" as brutal and immoral, the South had intensified its system of
slave control, particularly after the Nat Turner revolt
of 1831. By that time, American abolitionists realized the failure of gradualism
and persuasion, and they subsequently turned to a more militant policy,
demanding immediate abolition by law.
Probably the best-known abolitionist was
the aggressive agitator William Lloyd Garrison,
founder of the American Anti-Slavery Society
(1833-70). Others, drawn from the ranks of the clergy, included Theodore Dwight
Weld and Theodore Parker; from the world of letters, John Greenleaf Whittier,
James Russell Lowell, and Lydia Maria Child; and, from the free-black community,
such articulate former slaves as Frederick Douglass and
William Wells Brown .
American abolitionism laboured under the
handicap that it threatened the harmony of North and South in the Union, and it
also ran counter to the U.S. Constitution, which left the question of slavery to
the individual states. Consequently, the Northern public remained unwilling to
adopt abolitionist policy and was distrustful of abolitionist extremism. But a
number of factors combined to give the movement increased momentum. Chief among
these was the question of permitting or outlawing slavery in new Western
territories, with Northerners and Southerners taking increasingly adamant stands
on opposite sides of that issue throughout the 1840s and '50s. There was also
revulsion at the ruthlessness of slave hunters under the Fugitive
Slave Law (1850), and the far-reaching emotional response to Harriet
Beecher Stowe's antislavery novel Uncle
Tom's Cabin (1852) further strengthened the abolitionist cause.
Jolted by the raid (1859) of the
abolitionist extremist John Brown on Harpers
Ferry, the South became convinced that its entire way of life, based on the
cheap labour provided by slaves, was irretrievably threatened by the election to
the presidency of Abraham Lincoln (November 1860), who was opposed to the spread
of slavery into the Western territories. The ensuing secession of the Southern
states led to the American Civil War (1861-65).
The war, which began as a sectional power struggle to preserve the Union, in
turn led Lincoln (who had never been an abolitionist) to emancipate the slaves
in areas of the rebellion by the Emancipation
Proclamation (1863) and led further to the freeing of all other slaves in
the United States by the 13th amendment to the Constitution in 1865. (see also
American Civil War)
Under the pressure of worldwide public
opinion, slavery was completely abolished in its last remaining Latin-American
strongholds, Cuba and Brazil, in 1880-86 and 1883-88, respectively. Some slavery
still existed in parts of Africa and Asia, but the system of African slavery as
a Western phenomenon had ceased to exist. See also slavery
. |
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