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History is a central element of
the Old Testament. It is the subject of narration in the specifically
historical books and of celebration, commemoration, and remonstration in
all of the books. History in the Old Testament is not history in the
modern sense; it is the story of events seen as revealing the divine
presence and power. Nevertheless, it is the account of an actual people in
an actual geographical area at certain specified historical times and in
contact with other particular peoples and empires known from other
sources. Hence, far more than with other great religious scriptures, a
knowledge of the historical background is conducive, if not essential, to
an adequate understanding of a major portion of the Old Testament. Recent
archaeological discoveries as well as comparative historical research and
philological studies, collated with an analysis and interpretation of the
Old Testament text (still the major source of information), have made
possible a fuller and more reliable picture of biblical history than in
previous eras. For another presentation of Old Testament history, see
JUDAISM .
The geographical theatre of the
Old Testament is the ancient Near East,
particularly the Fertile Crescent region, running from the Tigris and
Euphrates rivers up to Syria and down through Palestine to the Nile Delta.
In this area great civilizations and empires developed and seminomadic
ethnic groups, such as the Hebrews, were involved in the mixture of
peoples and cultures. The exact origin of the Hebrews is not known with
certainty, but the biblical tradition of their origin in a clan that
migrated from Mesopotamia to Canaan (Palestine) early in the 2nd
millennium BCE has analogues in what is known of the movements of other
groups in that area and period. There are, moreover, obvious Mesopotamian
motifs in biblical cosmogony and primeval history in the early part of the
Bible, and Mesopotamian place-names are the obvious bases of some of the
personal names of the clan's forebears. Canaanite influences are evident
in the Hebrew alphabet, poetry, and certain mythological themes.
Linguistic and other similarities with neighbouring Semitic peoples, such
as the Amorites and Moabites, are also evident. (see also Index:
Israelite, Mesopotamian
religion, Syrian and Palestinian religion)
According to biblical tradition,
the clan migrated to Egypt because of a famine in the land of Canaan, were
later enslaved and oppressed, and finally escaped from Egypt to the desert
east of the Isthmus of Suez under a remarkable leader, Moses.
The account--a proclamation, celebration, and commemoration of the
event--is replete with legendary elements, but present-day scholars tend
to believe that behind the legends there is a solid core of fact; namely,
that Hebrew slaves who built the fortified cities of Pithom and Rameses
somehow fled from Egypt, probably in the 13th century BCE, under a great
leader (see also MOSES ). A stele
(inscribed stone pillar) of the pharaoh Merneptah
of that time in which he claims to have destroyed Israel is the first
known nonbiblical reference to the people by name. Whether the destruction
was in the intervening desert or in Canaan (and whether a true or a false
claim) is not clear. The tradition ascribes to Moses the basic features of
Israel's faith: a single God, called YHWH, who cannot be represented
iconically, bound in a covenant relationship with his special people
Israel, to whom he has promised possession of (not, as with their
forefathers, mere residence in) the land of Canaan. There is some dispute
among scholars as to when such features as the Mosaic Covenant actually
emerged and as to which of the traditional 12 tribes of Israel entered
Canaan at the end of the period of wandering in the desert. (see also Index: Egypt, ancient)
The biblical account of the
conquest of Canaan is again, from the point of view of historical
scholarship, full of legendary elements that express and commemorate the
elation and wonder of the Israelites at these events. The conquest of
Canaan--according to tradition, a united national undertaking led by
Moses' successor, Joshua--was a rather
drawn out and complicated matter. Archaeological evidence tends to refute
some of the elements of the biblical account, confirm others, and leave
some open. According to the tradition, after an initial unified assault
that broke the main Canaanite resistance, the tribes engaged in individual
mopping-up operations. Scholars believe that Hebrews who had remained
resident in Canaan joined forces with the invading tribes, that the other
Canaanite groups continued to exist, and that many of them later were
assimilated by the Israelites.
The invading tribes who became
masters of parts of Canaan, although effectively autonomous and lacking a
central authority, considered themselves a league of 12 tribes, although
the number 12 seems to have been more canonical or symbolical than
historical. Some scholars, on the analogy of Greek leagues of six or 12
tribes or cities with a common sanctuary, speak of the Israelite league as
an "amphictyony," the Greek term for such an association; but
others hold that there is no evidence that the Israelites maintained a
common shrine. Certain leaders arose, called judges, who might rule over
several tribes, but this arrangement was usually of a local or regional
character. However, the stories about such "judges" (who were
frequently local champions or heroes, such as Gideon, Jephthah, and
Samson), though encrusted with legend, are now thought to be substantially
historical. The period from about 1200 to 1020 is called, after them, the
period of the judges. It was during this period that Israelite
assimilation of Canaanite cultural and religious ideas and practices began
to be an acute problem and that other invaders and settlers became a
threat to the security of Israel. One of
the chief threats was from the Philistines,
an Aegean people who settled (c. 12th
century BCE) on the coast of what later came to be called, after them,
Palestine. Organized in a league of five cities, or principalities, the
Philistines, who possessed a monopoly of iron implements and weapons,
pushed eastward into the Canaanite hinterland and subjugated Israelite
tribes, such as the Judahites and Danites, that stood in their way, even
capturing the sacred ark from the famous shrine of Shiloh when it was
brought into battle against them. The Philistine threat was probably the
decisive factor in the emergence of a permanent political (but at first
primarily military) union of all Israel under a king--what historians call
the united monarchy (or kingdom).
The monarchy was initiated during
the career of Samuel, a prophet of great
influence and authority who was also recognized as a judge and is depicted
in varying biblical accounts as either favouring or not favouring the
reign of a human king over Israel. In any case, he anointed Saul,
a courageous military leader of the tribe of Benjamin, as king (c.
1020 BCE). Saul won substantial victories over the Ammonites,
Philistines, and Amalekites, leading the tribes in a "holy war,"
and for a time the Philistine advance was stopped; but Saul and his son
Jonathan were killed in a disastrous battle with the Philistines in
central Palestine. His successor, David, a
former aide (and also his son-in-law) who had fallen out of favour with
him, at first took over (c. 1010)
the rule of Judah in the south and then of all Israel (c. 1000). Through his military and administrative abilities and his
political acumen, David established a centralized rule in Israel, cleared
the territory of foreign invaders, and, in the absence of any aggressive
foreign empire in the area, created his own petty empire over neighbouring
city-states and peoples. He established his capital in Jerusalem,
which until then had maintained its independence as a Canaanite city-state
wedged between the territories of Saul's tribe Benjamin and David's tribe
Judah, and moved the ark there from the small Israelite town in which it
had been stored by the Philistines, establishing it in a tent shrine. This
felicitous combination of holy ark, political reign, and central city was
to be hailed and proclaimed by future ages. Under David's successor, his
son Solomon (reigned c.
961-922), Israel became a thriving commercial power; numerous
impressive buildings were erected, including the magnificent Temple (a
concrete symbol of the religiopolitical unity of Israel); a large harem of
foreign princesses was acquired, sealing relations with other states; the
country was divided into 12 districts for administrative, supply, and
taxation purposes. Foreign cults set up to serve the King's foreign wives
and foreign traders led to charges of idolatry and apostasy by religious
conservatives. In the latter years of his reign, Solomon's unpopular
policies, such as oppressive forced labour, led to internal discontent and
rebellion, while externally the vassal nations of Damascus (Aram) and Edom
staged successful revolts against his rule. The central and northern
tribes, called Israel in the restricted sense, were especially galled by
the oppressive policies, and soon after Solomon's death Israel split off
to become a separate kingdom. The united monarchy thus became the divided
monarchy of Israel (the northern kingdom) and Judah
(the southern kingdom). (see also Index:
Jerusalem, Temple of)
Jeroboam I,
the first king of the new state of Israel, made his capital first at
Shechem, then at Tirzah. Recognizing the need for religious independence
from Jerusalem, he set up official sanctuaries at Dan and Bethel, at the
two ends of his realm, installing in them golden calves (or bulls), for
which he is castigated in the anti-northern account in the First Book of
the Kings. Israel engaged in conflicts with Judah and, sometimes jointly
with Judah, against foreign powers. At first there was great dynastic
instability in the northern kingdom, until the accession of Omri
(reigned c. 884-c. 872), one of its greatest kings, who founded a dynasty that
lasted through the reign of his two grandsons (to 842). Under Omri an
impressive building program was initiated at the capital, Moab was
subjugated (an event confirmed in an extrabiblical source, the Moabite
Stone), and amicable relations were established with Judah. The Phoenician
kingdom of Tyre was made an ally through the marriage of his son Ahab
to the Tyrian princess Jezebel. Ahab (reigned c. 874-853 BCE)--unless the episode recounted in I Kings, chapter
20, actually took place four reigns later--fought off an attempt by
Damascus, heading a coalition of kings, to take over Israel. Near the end
of his reign, Ahab joined with Damascus and other neighbouring states to
fight off the incursions of the great Assyrian Empire in their area.
Peaceful relations were cemented with Judah through the marriage of Ahab's
daughter (or sister) Athaliah to Jehoram, the son of the king of Judah
(not to be confused with Ahab's son, Jehoram of Israel). But the
establishment of a pagan Baal temple for Jezebel
and her attempt to spread her cult aroused great opposition on the part of
the zealous Yahwists among the common people. There was also resentment at
the despotic Oriental manner of rule that Ahab, incited by Jezebel,
exercised. She and her cult were challenged by Elijah,
a prophet whose fierce and righteous character and acts, as illumined by
legend, are dramatically depicted in the First Book of the Kings. In the
reign of Ahab's son Jehoram, Elijah's
disciple Elisha inspired the slaughter of Jezebel and the whole royal
family, as well as of all the worshippers of Baal, thus putting a stop to
the Baalist threat. Jehu, Jehoram's general
who led this massacre, became king and established a dynasty that lasted
almost a century (c. 842-745),
the longest in the history of Israel.
Meanwhile, in Judah, the Baal cult
introduced by Athaliah, the queen mother
and effective ruler for a time, was suppressed after a revolt, led by the
chief priests, in which Athaliah was killed and her grandson Joash
(Jehoash) was made king. In the ensuing period, down to the final fall of
the northern kingdom, Judah and Israel had varying relations of conflict
and amity and were involved in the alternative expansion and loss of power
in their relations with neighbouring states. Damascus
was the main immediate enemy, which annexed much of Israel's territory,
exercised suzerainty over the rest, and exacted a heavy tribute from
Judah. Under Jeroboam II (783-741) in
Israel and Uzziah (Azariah; 783-742) in
Judah, both of whom had long reigns at the same time, the two kingdoms
cooperated to achieve a period of prosperity, tranquillity, and imperial
sway unequalled since Solomon's reign. The threat of the rising Assyrian
Empire under Tiglath-Pileser III soon
reversed this situation. When a coalition of anti-Assyrian states,
including Israel, marched against Judah to force its participation, the
Judahite king Ahaz (c. 735-720) called on Assyria for protection; the result was the
defeat of Israel, which suffered heavily in captives, money tribute, and
lost provinces, while Judah became a vassal state of Assyria. In about
721, after an abortive revolt under King Hoshea,
the rump state of Israel was annexed outright by Assyria and became an
Assyrian province; its elite cadre, amounting to nearly 30,000 according
to Assyrian figures, was deported to Mesopotamia and Media, and settlers
were imported from other lands. Thus, the northern kingdom of Israel
ceased to exist. Its decline and fall were a major theme in the prophecies
of Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, and Micah.
Meanwhile, the southern kingdom of
Judah was to have another century and a half of existence before a similar
and even grimmer fate befell it. Hezekiah
(reigned c. 715-c. 686), who instituted a religious reform to return worship to a
pure Yahwist form, also displayed political independence, joining a
coalition of Palestinian states against Assyria. But the coalition was
soon defeated, and Judah--with Jerusalem besieged--bought off the
Assyrians, led by Sennacherib, with tribute. In the reign of Manasseh
(c. 686-c. 642) there was a revival of pagan rites, including astral cults
in the very forecourts of the temple of YHWH, child sacrifice, and temple
prostitution; hence, he is usually portrayed as the most wicked of the
kings of Judah. If he had any tendencies toward independence from Assyrian
domination, they apparently were suppressed by his being taken in chains
to Babylon, where he was molded into proper vassal behaviour, although one
edifying and probably unhistorical biblical account reports his repentance
and attempt at religious reform after his return to Judah. The great
religious reform took place in the reign of his grandson Josiah
(640-609) during a period when the Assyrian Empire was in decline and was
precipitated by the discovery of the Book of the Law during the
restoration of the Temple. It was proclaimed by the king to be the Law of
the realm, and the people pledged obedience to it. In accordance with its
admonitions, the pagan altars and idols in the Temple were removed, rural
sanctuaries ("high places") all the way into Samaria were
destroyed, and the Jerusalem Temple was made the sole official place of
worship. (For an identification of the law book with the legal portion of
Deuteronomy, see below Old
Testament literature: Deuteronomy .)
Josiah also made an attempt at political independence and expansion but
was defeated and killed in a battle with the Egyptians, the new allies of
the fading Assyrian Empire. During the reigns of his sons Jehoiakim (c.
609-598) and Zedekiah (597-586), Judah's independence was gradually
extinguished by the might of the new dominant Babylonian
Empire under Nebuchadrezzar. The end came in 586 with the Babylonian
capture of Jerusalem and the destruction of the principal buildings,
including the Temple and the fortifications. The first deportation of
Judahites to Babylon, during the brief reign of Josiah's grandson
Jehoiachin in 597, was followed by the great deportation of 586, which was
to be a theme of lament and remembrance for millennia to come. (Numerous
Jews also migrated to Egypt during this troubled time.) Exhortations and
prophecies on the decline and fall of Judah are to be found in Zephaniah,
Nahum, Habakkuk, and Jeremiah (who played a significant role in the
events), while the conditions and meaning of the exile are proclaimed by
Ezekiel and Deutero-Isaiah (chapters 40-55 of Isaiah).
The Babylonian Exile (586-538)
marks an epochal dividing point in Old Testament history, standing between
what were subsequently to be designated the pre-exilic and post-exilic
eras. The Judahite community in Babylonia was, on the whole, more Yahwist
in religion than ever, following the Mosaic Law, emphasizing and
redefining such distinctive elements as circumcision and the sabbath and
stressing personal and congregational prayer--the beginnings of synagogal
worship. It is possible that they also reached an understanding of
historical events (like that taught by the great pre-exilic and exilic
prophets)--as the chastening acts of a universal God acting in history
through Nebuchadrezzar and other conquerors. To this period is also
ascribed the beginning of the compilation of significant portions of the
Old Testament and of the organizing view behind it. In any event, it was
from this community that the leadership and the cadres for the
resurrection of the Judahite nation and faith were to come when Cyrus
the Great (labelled "the Lord's anointed" in
Deutero-Isaiah) conquered Babylon and made it possible for them to return
(538). A contingent of about 50,000 persons, including about 4,000 priests
and 7,000 slaves, returned under Sheshbazzar, a prince of Judah.
The first great aim was the
rebuilding of the Temple as the centre of worship and thus also of
national existence; this was completed in 515 under the administration of
Zerubbabel and became the place of uninterrupted sacrificial worship for
the next 350 years. The next task was to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem,
which was undertaken by Nehemiah, a
Babylonian Jew and court butler who was appointed governor of Judah and
arrived in 444. Nehemiah also began religious reforms, emphasizing
tithing, observance of the sabbath, and the prohibition against
intermarriage with "foreign" women. This reform was carried
through systematically and zealously by Ezra,
a priest and scribe who came from Babylon about 400 BCE, called the people
together, and read them the "book of the law of Moses" to bring
them back to the strict and proper observance maintained in Babylon:
circumcision, sabbath observance, keeping the feasts, and, to seal it all,
avoiding intermarriage. (In this presentation, modern critical scholarship
is being followed, placing Nehemiah before Ezra instead of the traditional
sequence, which reverses the positions.) Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi
are the prophets of this restoration period. Ezra and Nehemiah are its
narrators.
It was in this period that enmity
between the Jews, or Judaeans, as they came to be called, and the Samaritans,
a term applied to the inhabitants of the former northern kingdom (Israel),
was exacerbated. It has been surmised that this goes back to the old
political rivalry between Israel and Judah or even further back to the
conflict between the tribes of Joseph and Judah. Scholars ascribe the
exacerbation of enmity in the restoration period variously to the
Samaritans' being excluded from participating in the rebuilding of the
Temple; to Nehemiah's rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem (regarded as a
threatening act by the Samaritan authorities); or to the proscriptions of
intermarriage by Ezra. The animus of the Jews against the Samaritans is
frequently expressed in the biblical books dealing with the restoration
(expressions perhaps engendered by later events), but the attitude of the
Samaritans and a good deal else about them is not evident. At some time
they became a distinct religious community, with a temple of their own on
Mt. Gerizim and a Scripture that was limited solely to the Pentateuch,
excluding the Prophets and Writings.
Old Testament history proper ends
with the events described in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. The books of
Chronicles give all the preceding history, from Adam to the Babylonian
sack of Jerusalem and the exile. The last two verses of the Second Book of
the Chronicles are repeated in the first two verses of Ezra: God inspires
Cyrus to send the Jews back to Jerusalem to rebuild the Temple. The
Persian period of Jewish history ended with the conquest of Alexander the
Great in 323 BCE to begin the Hellenistic era, in which some of the
biblical (including apocryphal or deuterocanonical) writings were created
(for Hellenistic Judaism, see JUDAISM ). |
