4 THE CONCEPT AND FORMS OF RITUAL

The performance of ceremonial acts, or rituals, prescribed by tradition or by sacerdotal decree is a specific, observable mode of behaviour exhibited by all known societies. It is thus possible to view ritual as a way of defining or describing man.

• 4.1 Nature and significance.
  
  • 4.1.1 The origin approach.
  • 4.1.2 The functional approach.
  • 4.1.3 The history of religions approach.
• 4.2 Functions of ritual.
  
• 4.3 Types of ritual.
  
  • 4.3.1 Imitative.
  • 4.3.2 Positive and negative.
  • 4.3.3 Sacrificial.
  • 4.3.4 Life crisis.
    
• 4.4 Conclusion.
  
• 4.5 Prayer
  
  • 4.5.1 NATURE AND SIGNIFICANCE
  • 4.5.2 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT
  • 4.5.3 TYPES OF PRAYER
    • 4.5.3.1 Petition.
    • 4.5.3.2 Confession.
    • 4.5.3.3 Intercession.
    • 4.5.3.4 Praise and thanksgiving.
    • 4.5.3.5 Adoration.
    • 4.5.3.6 Unitative: mystical union or ecstasy.
  • 4.5.4 FORMS OF PRAYER IN THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD
    • 4.5.4.1 Religions of nonliterate peoples.
    • 4.5.4.2 Ancient civilizations.
    • 4.5.4.3 Religions of the East.
    • 4.5.4.4 Religions of the West.
  • 4.5.5 CONCLUSION
    
• 4.6 Creed and confession
  
  • 4.6.1 CREEDS IN THE MAJOR RELIGIONS
    • 4.6.1.1 Origins and functions of creeds.
    • 4.6.1.2 Religions of the East.
    • 4.6.1.3 Religions of the West.
      • 4.6.1.3.1 Islam.
      • 4.6.1.3.2 Judaism.
      • 4.6.1.3.3 Christianity.
  • 4.6.2 CONFESSIONS OF THE CHRISTIAN FAITH
    • 4.6.2.1 Origins and functions of confessions.
      • 4.6.2.1.1 Lutheran confessions.
      • 4.6.2.1.2 Reformed churches confessions.
      • 4.6.2.1.3 The Anglican Communion.
      • 4.6.2.1.4 Confessions of other Protestant groups.
      • 4.6.2.1.5 Roman Catholic doctrinal statements.
      • 4.6.2.1.6 Eastern Orthodox doctrinal statements.
    • 4.6.2.2 Creeds and confessions today.
      
• 4.7 Sacrament
  
  • 4.7.1 NATURE AND SIGNIFICANCE
  • 4.7.2 TYPES AND VARIATIONS
    • 4.7.2.1 Types.
    • 4.7.2.2 Variations.
      • 4.7.2.2.1 Sacramental ideas and practices in preliterate societies.
      • 4.7.2.2.2 Sacramental ideas and practices in the ancient Near East.
      • 4.7.2.2.3 Sacramental ideas and practices in the Greco-Roman world.
      • 4.7.2.2.4 Sacramental ideas and practices in the Indo-Iranian world.
      • 4.7.2.2.5 Sacramental ideas and practices of pre-Columbian America.
  • 4.7.3 THEOLOGY AND PRACTICE OF SACRAMENTS IN CHRISTIANITY
    • 4.7.3.1 Baptism.
    • 4.7.3.2 Confirmation.
    • 4.7.3.3 The Eucharist.
    • 4.7.3.4 Repentance.
    • 4.7.3.5 Ordination.
    • 4.7.3.6 Marriage.
    • 4.7.3.7 Healing of the sick.
  • 4.7.4 CONCLUSION
    
• 4.8 Sacrifice
  
  • 4.8.1 NATURE AND ORIGINS
    • 4.8.1.1 Nature of sacrifice.
    • 4.8.1.2 Theories of the origin of sacrifice.
  • 4.8.2 ANALYSIS OF THE RITE OF SACRIFICE
    • 4.8.2.1 Sacrificer.
    • 4.8.2.2 Material of the oblation.
      • 4.8.2.2.1 Blood offerings.
      • 4.8.2.2.2 Bloodless offerings.
      • 4.8.2.2.3 Divine offerings.
    • 4.8.2.3 Time and place of sacrifice.
    • 4.8.2.4 Method of sacrifice.
    • 4.8.2.5 Recipient of the sacrifice.
    • 4.8.2.6 Intentions.
      • 4.8.2.6.1 Propitiation and expiation.
      • 4.8.2.6.2 Gift sacrifices.
      • 4.8.2.6.3 Thank offerings.
      • 4.8.2.6.4 Fertility.
      • 4.8.2.6.5 Building sacrifices.
      • 4.8.2.6.6 Mortuary sacrifice.
      • 4.8.2.6.7 Communion sacrifices.
  • 4.8.3 SACRIFICE IN THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD
    • 4.8.3.1 Religions of India.
    • 4.8.3.2 Religions of China.
    • 4.8.3.3 Religions of Japan.
    • 4.8.3.4 Ancient Greece.
    • 4.8.3.5 Judaism.
    • 4.8.3.6 Christianity.
    • 4.8.3.7 Islam.
    • 4.8.3.8 Conclusion.
      
• 4.9 Rites of passage
  
  • 4.9.1 NATURE AND SIGNIFICANCE
  • 4.9.2 FUNCTIONS
  • 4.9.3 CLASSIFICATIONS OF RITES
    • 4.9.3.1 Life-cycle ceremonies.
    • 4.9.3.2 Ceremonies of social transformation.
    • 4.9.3.3 Ceremonies of religious transformation.
    • 4.9.3.4 Other ceremonies.
    • 4.9.3.5 Symbolic aspects of ceremonies.
    • 4.9.3.6 A representative example.
  • 4.9.4 RITES OF PASSAGE IN THE CONTEXT OF THE SOCIAL SYSTEM
  • 4.9.5 PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF RITES OF PASSAGE
  • 4.9.6 RITES OF PASSAGE IN THE CONTEXT OF THE RELIGIOUS SYSTEM
  • 4.9.7 PRIMARY RITES OF PASSAGE
    • 4.9.7.1 Birth rites.
    • 4.9.7.2 Initiation rites.
    • 4.9.7.3 Marriage rites.
    • 4.9.7.4 Death rites.
      
• 4.10 Death rites and customs
  
  • 4.10.1 RELEVANT CONCEPTS AND DOCTRINES
    • 4.10.1.1 Life and death.
    • 4.10.1.2 Human substance and nature.
    • 4.10.1.3 Forms of survival.
    • 4.10.1.4 The ultimate destiny of the dead.
  • 4.10.2 PATTERNS OF MYTH AND SYMBOL
    • 4.10.2.1 Geography of the afterlife.
    • 4.10.2.2 Means of approach to the afterworld.
    • 4.10.2.3 Forms of final determination.
  • 4.10.3 DEATH AND FUNERARY RITES AND CUSTOMS
    • 4.10.3.1 Before and at death.
    • 4.10.3.2 Modes of preparation of the corpse and attendant rites.
    • 4.10.3.3 Modes of disposal of the corpse and attendant rites.
    • 4.10.3.4 Post-funerary rites and customs.
  • 4.10.4 CULTS AND MEMORIALS OF THE DEAD
    • 4.10.4.1 Commemorative rites and services.
    • 4.10.4.2 Cult of the dead.
  • 4.10.5 PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF DEATH
  • 4.10.6 MODERN NOTIONS OF DEATH
    • 4.10.6.1 Continuation of traditional responses.
    • 4.10.6.2 Avowed secular inattention and unconcern.
    • 4.10.6.3 Rites and customs among secular materialists.
      
• 4.11 Purification rites and customs
  
  • 4.11.1 CONCEPTS OF PURITY AND POLLUTION
    • 4.11.1.1 General concepts.
    • 4.11.1.2 Purity and pollution in relation to religious concepts.
      • 4.11.1.2.1 Pollution and the sacred.
      • 4.11.1.2.2 Pollution and sin.
      • 4.11.1.2.3 Pollution and the forces of evil.
  • 4.11.2 CATEGORIES AND THEORIES OF POLLUTION AND IMPURITY
    • 4.11.2.1 Categories of pollution and impurity.
      • 4.11.2.1.1 Physiological processes.
      • 4.11.2.1.2 Violence and associated processes.
      • 4.11.2.1.3 Anomalies.
      • 4.11.2.1.4 Social classifications: classes and castes.
    • 4.11.2.2 Theories of pollution and impurity.
  • 4.11.3 TYPES OF PURIFICATION RITES
    • 4.11.3.1 Occasions and symbolism of purification rites.
    • 4.11.3.2 Classification of purification rites.
      • 4.11.3.2.1 The removal of pollution.
      • 4.11.3.2.2 The expulsion of pollution.
      • 4.11.3.2.3 The transfer of pollution.
      • 4.11.3.2.4 The destruction of pollution.
      • 4.11.3.2.5 The transformation of pollution into purity.
      • 4.11.3.2.6 The introduction of purity.
      • 4.11.3.2.7 Other purification rites.
  • 4.11.4 EXAMPLES OF PURIFICATION RITES
    • 4.11.4.1 Rite for purifying a cured leper in ancient Judaism.
    • 4.11.4.2 The Navajo sweat-emetic rite.
    • 4.11.4.3 The Zoroastrian "Great Purification" rite.
  • 4.11.5 POLLUTION BELIEFS IN MODERN SOCIETY
    
• 4.12 Dietary laws and food customs
  
  • 4.12.1 NATURE AND SIGNIFICANCE
    • 4.12.1.1 Food as a material expression of social relationships.
    • 4.12.1.2 Regulations about the quantity of food and drink consumed.
    • 4.12.1.3 Use of food in religion.
  • 4.12.2 LAWS AND CUSTOMS AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
    • 4.12.2.1 Hunter-gatherers.
    • 4.12.2.2 Corporate kin groups.
    • 4.12.2.3 Chiefdoms.
    • 4.12.2.4 Complex societies.
  • 4.12.3 RULES AND CUSTOMS IN WORLD RELIGIONS
    • 4.12.3.1 Judaism.
      • 4.12.3.1.1 Interpretation of Jewish laws.
      • 4.12.3.1.2 Elaboration of the Jewish laws.
    • 4.12.3.2 Black Muslim movement.
    • 4.12.3.3 Islam.
    • 4.12.3.4 Christianity.
    • 4.12.3.5 Religions of India.
    • 4.12.3.6 Buddhism.
    • 4.12.3.7 Religions of China.
    • 4.12.3.8 Religions of Japan and Korea.
      
• 4.13 Ceremonial and ritualistic objects
  
  • 4.13.1 VARIETIES
    • 4.13.1.1 Icons and symbols.
    • 4.13.1.2 Religious dress and vestments.
    • 4.13.1.3 Instruments for worship and religious ceremonies.
    • 4.13.1.4 Amulets and talismans.
  • 4.13.2 TYPES OF SACRED SETTINGS FOR CEREMONIAL AND RITUALISTIC OBJECTS
    • 4.13.2.1 Places of worship and sacrifice.
    • 4.13.2.2 Sacred furniture and related objects.
    • 4.13.2.3 Protective devices and markers of sacredness.
  • 4.13.3 FORMS OF CEREMONIAL AND RITUALISTIC OBJECTS ACCORDING TO THEIR FUNCTIONS
    • 4.13.3.1 Summoning, mediating, and expelling devices.
      • 4.13.3.1.1 Sound devices.
      • 4.13.3.1.2 Lighting devices.
      • 4.13.3.1.3 Incense and other smoke devices.
      • 4.13.3.1.4 Expelling and other protective devices.
    • 4.13.3.2 Representational objects.
      • 4.13.3.2.1 Figures.
      • 4.13.3.2.2 Plants and plant representations.
      • 4.13.3.2.3 Other representational objects.
      • 4.13.3.2.4 Relics.
    • 4.13.3.3 Other ritual objects.
      • 4.13.3.3.1 Objects used in prayer and meditation.
      • 4.13.3.3.2 Objects used in purification rites.
      • 4.13.3.3.3 Objects used in rites of passage.
      • 4.13.3.3.4 Objects used in sacrifices and in sacred meals.
      • 4.13.3.3.5 Objects used in temple, state, and private ceremonies.
  • 4.13.4 CONCLUSION
    
• 4.14 Religious dress and vestments
  
  • 4.14.1 TYPES OF DRESS AND VESTMENTS IN WESTERN RELIGIONS
    • 4.14.1.1 Judaism.
      • 4.14.1.1.1 Early sacerdotal dress.
      • 4.14.1.1.2 Later religious dress.
    • 4.14.1.2 Christianity.
      • 4.14.1.2.1 Roman Catholic religious dress.
      • 4.14.1.2.2 Eastern Orthodox religious dress.
      • 4.14.1.2.3 Protestant religious dress.
      • 4.14.1.2.4 Modern changes in religious dress and vestments.
    • 4.14.1.3 Islam.
  • 4.14.2 TYPES OF DRESS AND VESTMENTS IN EASTERN RELIGIONS
    • 4.14.2.1 Indian religions.
    • 4.14.2.2 Buddhism.
    • 4.14.2.3 Chinese religions.
    • 4.14.2.4 Japanese religions.
      
• 4.15 Feasts and festivals
  
  • 4.15.1 NATURE AND SIGNIFICANCE
    • 4.15.1.1 Concepts of sacred times.
    • 4.15.1.2 Times of seasonal changes.
      • 4.15.1.2.1 The significance of seasonal renewal in prehistoric times.
      • 4.15.1.2.2 The significance of seasonal renewal in ancient Egypt.
      • 4.15.1.2.3 The significance of seasonal renewal in ancient Mesopotamia.
      • 4.15.1.2.4 The significance of seasonal renewal in areas of other religions.
    • 4.15.1.3 Other sacred times.
      • 4.15.1.3.1 Crucial stages of life.
      • 4.15.1.3.2 Times of commemoration and remembrance.
  • 4.15.2 TYPES AND KINDS OF FEASTS AND FESTIVALS
    • 4.15.2.1 National and local festivals.
    • 4.15.2.2 Secular modernist festivals.
    • 4.15.2.3 Carnivals and saturnalias.
  • 4.15.3 CONCLUSION