| RELIGIOUS RITES |
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The socio-anthropological analyses
written near the beginning of the 20th century that are still useful for their
interpretations of the sacred in preliterate societies include HENRI HUBERT and
MARCEL MAUSS, Essai sur la nature et le
fonction du sacrifice (1899; Eng. trans., Sacrifice: Its Nature and Function, 1964); and ÉMILE
DURKHEIM, Les Formes élémentaires
de la vie religieuse, le système totémique en Australia (1912;
Eng. trans., The Elementary Forms of the
Religious Life, 1965). More recently, in the same vein, are E.O. JAMES, Sacrifice and Sacrament (1962), a comparative analysis of sacred
ritual from many different religious traditions; and ROGER CAILLOIS, L'Homme
et le sacré (1939; Eng. trans., Man
and the Sacred, 1960), a general reflective interpretation of various social
expressions of the sacred. The following combine philosophical and theological
concerns: RUDOLF OTTO, Das Heilige
(1917; Eng. trans., The Idea of the Holy, 1923),
an appeal to an a priori preconceptual knowledge of the holy; MAX F. SCHELER, Vom
Ewigen im Menschen, 2nd ed. (1923; Eng. trans., On
the Eternal in Man, 1960), an intuitive philosopher's argument for the
eternal reality of the sacred prior to man's awareness or social expression of
it; NATHAN SODERBLOM, "Holiness," Encyclopedia
of Religion and Ethics, 6:731-41 (1928, reprinted 1955), which stressed the
quality of holiness in all religion four years prior to Otto's more famous
statement, and his Living God: Basal Forms
of Personal Religion (1933), a comparative study of religion organized
according to various ways through which man encounters God; and JOACHIM WACH, The
Comparative Study of Religions, ed. by J.M. KITAGAWA (1958), a systematic
analysis of the modes (thought, action, fellowship) used to express the
religious experience. Two Dutch phenomenologists of religion who have made
notable contributions to the interpretation of forms that express man's relation
to the sacred are GERARDUS VAN DER LEEUW, whose Phänomenologie
der Religion (1933; Eng. trans., Religion
in Essence and Manifestation, 1963) organizes a wide spectrum of data into
three foci: the object of religion, the subject of religion, and their
reciprocal relation; and W. BREDE KRISTENSEN, who wrote The Meaning of Religion (1960), a series of lectures given during
the 1930s on the sacredness of man's cosmological, anthropological, and cultic
awareness as expressed in the preliterate cultures and those of the ancient
Mediterranean area. An extensive analysis of the forms and modes in which the
sacred is recognized is found in the writings of MIRCEA ELIADE, for whom the
apprehension of the sacred is a unique kind of experience in which the creative
power(s) of life appear(s) in particular symbols, myths, and rites. Four of his
works that deal with the nature and meaning of the sacred in different types of
expression are: Le Mythe de l'éternel
retour (1949; Eng. trans., The Myth of
the Eternal Return, 1954, reissued 1989); Myth and Reality (1963); Traité
d'histoire des religions (Eng. trans., Patterns
in Comparative Religion, 1958); and The
Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of Religion (1959). |
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MIRCEA ELIADE, Traité d'histoire des religions (1949; Eng. trans., Patterns
in Comparative Religion, 1958), is a standard work with much information on
worship. JAMES G. FRAZER, The Worship of
Nature (1926), is a classic work but is now out of date. WALTER
HARRELSON, From Fertility Cult to Worship (1969);
and F.H. HILLIARD, How Men Worship (1965),
are popular, brief treatments of worship in the major religions. JOHN S. MBITI, Concepts
of God in Africa (1970), has valuable source materials but is difficult to
use because of the variety of materials placed together. GEOFFREY PARRINDER, Worship
in the World's Religions (1961), is a popular work, accurate and helpful,
but brief. H.H. ROWLEY, Worship in Ancient
Israel (1967), is a standard and comprehensive work. EVELYN UNDERHILL, Worship (1936), is a standard work, still valuable, but now out of
date. GEOFFREY WAINWRIGHT, Doxology: The
Praise of God in Worship, Doctrine and Life (1980), argues that all
Christian themes come to a focus in worship. |
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WILLIAM LESSA and EVON Z. VOGT, Reader
in Comparative Religion, 3rd ed. (1971), is a good general anthology on
classical and modern positions on religion, ritual, and myth (mainly concerned
with nonliterate cultures), with an excellent bibliography. Gods
and Rituals, ed. by JOHN MIDDLETON (1967), contains a good collection of
essays on ritual practices in nonliterate cultures, also with a fine
bibliography. Among the classic texts dealing with the origin of ritual and
religion, there are three authors who have enduring influence: W. ROBERTSON
SMITH, Lectures on the Religion of the
Semites (1889); ÉMILE DURKHEIM, Les
Formes élémentaires de la vie religieuse (1912; Eng. trans., The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, 1965); and SIGMUND
FREUD, Totem und Tabu (1913; Eng.
trans., Totem and Taboo, 1918). Among
the classic positions on a functional approach to ritual are those of BRONISLAW
MALINOWSKI, Coral Gardens and Their Magic,
2 vol. (1935); and A.R. RADCLIFFE-BROWN, The Andaman Islanders (1922). More recent examples of the functional
approach are the anthropological texts of E.E. EVANS-PRITCHARD, Nuer
Religion (1956); and EDMUND LEACH, Political
Systems of Highland Burma (1954). MELFORD E. SPIRO, Burmese
Supernaturalism (1967), is one of the best critical texts using data from
Burmese Buddhism as support for a revised approach. VICTOR W. TURNER, The Forest of Symbols (1967), represents a novel analysis of
dominant symbols in belief and ritual. Among valuable approaches by theologians
and historians of religion are RUDOLF OTTO, Das
Heilige (1917; Eng. trans., The Idea
of the Holy, 1923); and JOACHIM WACH, The
Comparative Study of Religions (1958). JANE E. HARRISON, Themis,
2nd ed. rev. (1927); and S.H. HOOKE (ed.), Myth,
Ritual and Kingship (1958), are good examples of the myth-ritual school. An
excellent critique of this school may be found in JOSEPH E. FONTENROSE, The Ritual Theory of Myth (1966). HENRI HUBERT and MARCEL MAUSS, Essai
sur la nature et le fonction du sacrifice (1899; Eng. trans., Sacrifice:
Its Nature and Function, 1964), remains a standard analysis of sacrifice as
ritual. ARNOLD VAN GENNEP, Les Rites de
passage (Eng. trans., The Rites of
Passage, 1960), although written in 1909, continues to be an important work
on ritual as a marker of passage. MIRCEA ELIADE, Birth and Rebirth (1958), is an excellent historical study of ritual
as initiation, with a good bibliography. See also BRUCE LINCOLN, Emerging
from the Chrysalis: Studies in Rituals of Women's Initiation (1981). |
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The classical work is still that of F.
HEILER, Das Gebet, 5th ed. (1923),
which includes a bibliography and defends the theory of religious syncretism. R.
BOCCASSINO (ed.), La preghiera, 3 vol.
(1967), is a historical and psychological study of prayer and includes a useful
bibliography. G. VAN DER LEEUW, Phänomenologie
der Religion (1933; Eng. trans., Religion
in Essence and Manifestation, 1963), is an excellent overview and general
introduction of the psychology of prayer. Also of a psychological bent are
WILLIAM JAMES, The Varieties of Religious
Experience (1902); and H.U. VON BALTHASAR, Das betrachtende Gebet (1955; Eng. trans., Prayer, 1961). For prayer in various religions, in addition to La
preghiera, one should refer to M.P. NILSSON, Geschichte
der griechischen Religion, 2 vol. (1941-50; Eng. trans., A
History of Greek Religion, 2nd ed., 1963); A. FALKENSTEIN and W. VON SODEN, Summerische
und akkadische Hymnen und Gebete (1953); G.C. LOUNSBERY, La
Méditation bouddhique (1935; Eng. trans., Buddhist Meditation in the Southern School, 1950); E. CONZE, Buddhist
Meditation (1956); and R.C. ZAEHNER, The
Teachings of the Magi (1956) and The
Dawn and Twilight of Zoroastrianism (1961). For a bibliography on biblical
prayer, see "Prière," Dictionnaire
de la Bible, suppl. 8, pp. 604-606 (1968). I. ELBOGEN, Der jüdische Gottesdienst in seiner geschichtlichen Entwicklung, 4th
ed. (1962), is a classic on Jewish prayer. This can be supplemented by A.Z.
IDELSOHN, Jewish Liturgy and Its
Development (1967). On the origins of Christian prayer, see A. HAMMAN, La
Prière, 2 vol. (1959-63). KENNETH LEECH, True
Prayer (1980), is an Anglo-Catholic introduction to Christian spirituality. |
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A comprehensive treatment of creeds in
all religions is "Creeds and Articles," Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, 4:231-248 (1912, reprinted
1955). For anthropological, sociological, and phenomenological considerations,
see the International Encyclopedia of the
Social Sciences, 13:398-414 (1968); G. VAN DER LEEUW, Phänomenologie der Religion (1933; Eng. trans., Religion
in Essence and Manifestation, 1963); and J. WACH, Sociology
of Religion (1944). Works devoted to creedal and confessional formulations
are rare for most religions, but see S. SCHECHTER, "The Dogmas of
Judaism," Studies in Judaism, pp.
147-181 (1896); and A.J. WENSINCK, The
Muslim Creed: Its Genesis and Historical Development (1932). For
Christianity, the fullest collection of texts remains P. SCHAFF, The
Creeds of Christendom, 3 vol., 6th ed. (1919); for Roman Catholicism, H.J.D.
DENZINGER and A. SCHONMETZER, Enchiridion
Symbolorum (1963); and W.M. ABBOTT (ed.), The Documents of Vatican II (1966); for Protestantism, T.G. TAPPERT
(ed. and trans.), The Book of Concord (1959);
and A.C. COCHRANE (ed.), Reformed
Confessions of the 16th Century (1966). On the Ecumenical movement, see L.
VISCHER (ed.), A Documentary History of
the Faith and Order Movement 1927-1963
(1963). Brief but representative collections are B.A. GERRISH, The
Faith of Christendom: A Source Book of Creeds and Confessions (1963); and
J.H. LEITH (ed.), Creeds of the Churches (1963). Secondary works on early creeds
include O. CULLMANN, Die ersten
christlichen Glaubensbekenntnisse (1943; Eng. trans., The Earliest Christian Confessions, 1949); J.N.D. KELLY, Early
Christian Doctrines, 2nd ed. (1960); A.E. BURN, The
Athanasian Creed, 3rd impression (1930); D.L. HOLLAND, "The Earliest
Text of the Old Roman Symbol," Church
History, 34:262-281 (1965), and "The Creeds of Nicaea and
Constantinople Reexamined," Church
History, 38:248-261 (1969). On later confessions, a full treatment with good
bibliographies is E. MOLLAND, Christendom (1959).
This is usually supplemented by W.A. CURTIS, A
History of Creeds and Confessions of Faith in Christendom and Beyond (1911);
and C.A. BRIGGS, Theological Symbolics (1914). |
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The standard pioneer work on the wider
pre-Christian occurrence and interpretations is W.R. SMITH, Lectures
on the Religion of the Semites, 3rd ed. (1927), stressing sacramental
communion with the deity. A. GARDNER, History
of Sacrament in Relation to Thought and Progress (1921), applied the
sacramental principle to various aspects of life and belief; and R.R. MARETT, Sacraments
of Simple Folk (1933), wrote on sacraments in primitive culture. In his Dawn
and Twilight of Zoroastrianism (1961), R.C. ZAEHNER discussed the
anticipation of the Christian eucharistic sacramental rite in the Yasna
ceremony in the Avestan liturgy. The basic sacramental beliefs and cults
throughout the ages are examined anthropologically in E.O. JAMES, Sacrifice and Sacrament (1962). |
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A good general study of the Christian
doctrine of sacraments is P.T. FORSYTH, Lectures
on the Church and the Sacraments (1917). O.C. QUICK, The Christian Sacraments (1927, reprinted continually to 1952), is
one of the most comprehensive surveys. The positions of various religious bodies
are presented in the following: A.J. TAIT, Nature and Functions of the Sacraments (1917), the evangelical
viewpoint; B. LEEMING, The Principles of
Sacramental Theology, new ed. (1960), the Roman Catholic viewpoint; D.M.
BAILLIE, The Theology of the Sacraments
and Other Papers (1957), the Protestant viewpoint; and A. SCHMEMANN, Sacraments
and Orthodoxy (1965), the Orthodox viewpoint. J.H. SRAWLEY, Liturgical
Movement: Its Origin and Growth (1954), examines the development of
sacramental worship with special reference to lay participation. See also JOSEPH
MARTOS, Doors to the Sacred: A Historical
Introduction to Sacraments in the Catholic Church (1981). |
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Classic theories of the origin and
nature of sacrifice are found in the following: EDWARD B. TYLOR, Primitive Culture, 2 vol. (1871, reprinted 1958), a presentation of
the gift theory of sacrifice; W. ROBERTSON SMITH, Lectures on the Religion of the Semites, 3rd ed. (1927), the
clearest formulation of the author's theory of communion through a sacrificial
meal; JAMES G. FRAZER, The Golden Bough, 3rd
ed., 12 vol. (1907-15; abridged ed., The
New Golden Bough, 1964), a famous and influential treatise on ancient
religion that presents sacrifice as a means for rejuvenating a god; and HENRI
HUBERT and MARCEL MAUSS, "Essai sur la nature et la fonction du
sacrifice," L'Année
sociologique (1899; Eng. trans., Sacrifice:
Its Nature and Function, 1964), a sociological explanation of the
sacrificial victim as a buffer between man and the god. More recent formulations
include GERARDUS VAN DER LEEUW, Phänomenologie
der Religion (1933; Eng. trans., Religion
in Essence and Manifestation, 1963), an expansion of the notion of the
sacrificial gift by a phenomenologist of religion; ADOLF E. JENSEN, Mythos und Kult bei Naturvölkern, rev. ed. (1960; Eng. trans., Myth
and Cult Among Primitive Peoples, 1963), which correlates types of cultures
and their sacrifice; RAYMOND FIRTH, "Offering and Sacrifice: Problems of
Organization," in W.A. LESSA and E.Z. VOGT (eds.), Reader
in Comparative Religion, 3rd ed., pp. 185-194 (1971), an economic
interpretation of sacrifice; and E.O. JAMES, Sacrifice
and Sacrament (1962), a good survey. FRANCES M. YOUNG, Sacrifice and the Death of Christ (1978), is an overview of the
theology of sacrifice in the early Christian church. |
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Brief articles on several religions are
found in "Sacrifice," Encyclopaedia
of Religion and Ethics, 11:1-39 (1928, reprinted 1955). On Vedic religion,
A.B. KEITH, The Religion and Philosophy of
the Veda and Upanishads, 2 vol.
(1925), is still a standard work; and LOUIS RENOU, Religions of Ancient India (1953), offers a brief survey. On Chinese
sacrificial rites, see C.K. YANG, Religion
in Chinese Society (1961); on ancient Egypt, J.H. BREASTED, The
Elder Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt (1912); and on
ancient Greek and Roman religions, R.K. YERKES, Sacrifice
in Greek and Roman Religions and Early Judaism (1952), a clearly written,
well-documented work; and M.P. NILSSON, Geschichte
der griechischen Religion, 2 vol. (1941-50; Eng. trans., A History of Greek Religion, 2nd ed., 1963), a good handbook on
Greek religion. On sacrificial rites in Judaism there is extensive literature,
including "Sacrifice," Encyclopedia
Judaica, 14:599-615 (1971), a good survey with a bibliography; ROLAND DE
VAUX, Les Sacrifices de l'Ancien Testament
(1964; Eng. trans., Studies in Old
Testament Sacrifice, 1964); and YERKES (above). On ancient Scandinavian
rites, see E.O.G. TURVILLE-PETRIE, Myth and Religion of the North (1964). WALTER KRICKEBERG et
al., Die Religionen des Alten Amerika (1961; Eng. trans., Pre-Columbian
American Religions, 1968), discusses the rites of the ancient civilizations
of the American continents. On the religions of the peoples of Africa, JOHN S.
MBITI, Concepts of God in Africa (1970),
is an introduction with extensive bibliography. Important specific studies
include MELVILLE HERSKOVITS, Dahomey, 2
vol. (1938); E.E. EVANS-PRITCHARD, Nuer
Religion (1956); E.B. IDOWU, Olódùmarè:
God in Yoruba Belief (1962); and GEOFFREY PARRINDER, West African Religion, 2nd ed. rev. (1961). |
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ARNOLD VAN GENNEP, Les Rites de passage (1909; Eng. trans., The Rites of Passage, 1960), is a pioneering study and standard
work on passage rites. D.M. SCHNEIDER and K. GOUGH (eds.), Matrilineal Kinship (1961), is also, in comparison, a discussion of
patrilineal kinship. BRUNO BETTELHEIM, Symbolic
Wounds (1954), is a Freudian-inspired work interpreting ritual acts of
circumcision and other genital operations. E.D. CHAPPLE and C.S. COON, Principles
of Anthropology (1942), has useful information on social interaction, social
equilibrium and disruption, and the role of rites of passage in restoring
equilibrium. J.G. FRAZER, The Golden
Bough, 3rd ed., 12 vol. (1907-15), is a classic work that discusses rites of
passage and many other features of religion. A.M. HOCART, Social
Origins (1954), is an interesting interpretive work although somewhat dated.
FRANK W. YOUNG, Initiation Ceremonies (1965),
concerns rites of coming-of-age, interpreting their significance in relation to
the social roles of males and females and the organization of social groups. |
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E. BENDANN, Death Customs: An Analytical Study of Burial Rites (1930, reprinted
1974), is a useful account of relevant ethnological material. P.C. ROSENBLATT,
Grief and Mourning in Cross-Cultural Perspective (1976); and R. HUNTINGTON,
Celebrations of Death: The Anthropology of Mortuary Rituals (1979), are two
more-recent anthropological studies. Four works by S.G.F. BRANDON are helpful: Man
and His Destiny in the Great Religions (1962), with extensive bibliographies
and documentation; The Judgment of the Dead (1967), a comprehensive study of the
subject; Man and God in Art and Ritual (1972),
a profusely illustrated study that deals with mortuary rituals, conceptions of
burial, and funerary iconography; and "The Personification of Death in Some
Ancient Religions," Bull. John
Rylands Library, 43:317-385 (1961). J. MARINGER, Vorgeschichtliche Religion (1956; Eng. trans., The Gods of Prehistoric Man, 1960), discusses Paleolithic and
Neolithic burial practices. E.A.W. BUDGE, The
Mummy, 2nd ed. (1894, reprinted 1974), is a handbook on Egyptian funerary
archaeology. J. ZANDEE, Death As an Enemy,
According to Ancient Egyptian Conceptions (1960, reissued 1977), also
includes Coptic evidence. M. LAMM, The
Jewish Way in Death and Mourning, rev. ed. (1972); and J. JEREMIAS, Heiligengräber
in Jesu Umwelt (Mt. 23, 29; Lk. 11, 47) (1958), an account of Jewish
mortuary beliefs, are valuable studies. Sources focusing on Greek and Roman
civilizations include E. ROHDE, Psyche:
Seelenkult und Unsterblichkeitsglaube der Griechen, 8th ed. (1921; Eng.
trans., Psyche: The Cult of Souls and
Belief in Immortality Among the Greeks, 1925, reprinted 1972); D.C. KURTZ, Greek
Burial Customs (1971); F.V.A. CUMONT, After
Life in Roman Paganism (1922); J.M.C. TOYNBEE, Death
and Burial in the Roman World (1971); and A.K. FORTESCUE, The
Ceremonies of the Roman Rite Described, 6th ed. rev. by J.B. O'CONNELL
(1937). The following are also recommended: R. EKLUND, Life Between Death and
Resurrection According to Islam (1941); J.D.C. PAVRY, The Zoroastrian Doctrine of a Future Life: From Death to the Individual Judgment, 2nd ed. (1929, reissued
1975); J.J. MODI, The Religious Ceremonies
and Customs of the Parsees (1922, reprinted 1979; 2nd ed., 1937); J.A.
DUBOIS, Hindu Manners, Customs and
Ceremonies, 3rd ed. (1906, reissued 1968), invaluable for its descriptions;
M. GRANET, La Civilisation Chinoise (1929;
Eng. trans., Chinese Civilization, 1930,
reprinted 1974); La Religion des Chinois, 2nd
ed. (1951); P. ARIÈS, Western Attitudes Toward Death: From the Middle Ages to the Present
(1974), as reflected in ceremonies, customs, literature, and art; W.K.L. CLARKE
(ed.), Liturgy and Worship: A Companion to
the Prayer Books of the Anglican Communion (1932); T.S.R. BOASE, Death
in the Middle Ages: Mortality, Judgment, Remembrance (1972); and E.
PANOFSKY, Tomb Sculpture (1964), an illustrated survey of funerary iconography
from ancient Egypt to the Renaissance. |
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Few works deal directly with
purification rites. MARY DOUGLAS, Purity
and Danger (1966), is a major work dealing with the problems of purity and
impurity. HUTTON WEBSTER, Taboo: A
Sociological Study (1942); and FRANZ STEINER, Taboo
(1956), deal with pollution taboos as part of the general field of ritual
prohibitions. In the Encyclopaedia of
Religion and Ethics, 10:455-505 (1919, reprinted 1955), the article
"Purification" has many examples. Religious texts are among the best
available sources: the Old Testament; the Egyptian Book of the Dead; and
FRIEDRICH MAX MÜLLER (ed.), The
Sacred Books of the East, 51 vol. (1879-1904), available in many later
editions. The latter includes texts of Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam,
Zoroastrianism, and Taoism. For a good summary of Zoroastrian purification
rites, see J.J. MODI, The Religious Ceremonies and Customs of the Parsees (1922, reprinted
1979; 2nd ed., 1937). For ancient Greece, see LOUIS MOULINIER, Le
Pur et l'impur dans la pensée des Grecs, d'Homère à
Aristote (1952); and JANE HARRISON, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, 3rd ed. (1922). For
excellent synopses of African thought systems, see DARYLL FORDE (ed.), African
Worlds (1963); and, for a North American tribe, see GLADYS REICHARD, Navaho
Religion, 2nd ed. (1963). MARGARET MEAD, Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies (1935; reprinted,
1968), brings together material on three Pacific Islands societies. |
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General works include DONALD E. CARR, The Deadly
Feast of Life (1971), a popular account of food habits and nutritional
behaviour; MARY DOUGLAS, Purity and
Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (1966), a definitive
source; and CRAIG McANDREW and ROBERT B. EDGERTON, Drunken Comportment: A Social Explanation (1969), an exploration of
the ways people are expected to behave under the influence of alcohol in
different cultures. |
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The following discuss food customs and
dietary laws in tribal societies: RAYMOND FIRTH, We, the Tikopia: A Sociological Study of Kinship in Primitive Polynesia (1936);
MEYER FORTES, "Pietas in Ancestor Worship," Jl.
R. Anthrop. Inst., 91:166-191 (1961), reprinted in Man in Adaptation, vol. 3, The
Institutional Framework, ed. by YEHUDI A. COHEN, pp. 207-226 (1971); and
MARGARET MEAD, The Mountain Arapesh, vol.
2 (1970). |
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The basic sources for Judaism and
Christianity are, of course, the Old Testament (especially Leviticus 11,
Deuteronomy 14, and the prophets) and the New Testament (especially Acts, Luke,
Mark, and Romans). See also JOHANNES PEDERSEN, Israel: Its Life and Culture, 4 vol. (1926-40); and MARK ZBOROWSKI
and ELIZABETH HERZOG, Life Is with People (1952,
reprinted 1962), on the shtetl. |
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The following Islamic sources may
be consulted: the Qu`ran; AMEER ALI, Mohammedan
Law, 5th ed., 2 vol. (1929); and CHARLES C. TORREY, The Jewish Foundation of Islam (1933). |
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Sources on Indian systems include LOUIS
DUMONT, Homo hierarchicus, essai sur le
système des castes (1967; Eng. trans., Homo
Hierarchicus: The Caste System and Its Implications, 1970); EDWARD B. HARPER
(ed.), Religion in South Asia (1964),
especially Harper's "Ritual Pollution As an Integrator of Caste and
Religion," pp. 151-196; EDMUND R. LEACH (ed.), Aspects of Caste in South India, Ceylon, and North-west Pakistan (1960);
DAVID G. MANDELBAUM, Society in India, 2
vol. (1970); McKIM MARRIOTT, "Caste Ranking and Food Transactions: A Matrix
Analysis," Structure and Change in
Indian Society, ed. by MILTON B. SINGER and BERNARD S. COHN, pp. 133-171
(1968); KENNETH K.S. CH'EN, Buddhism: The
Light of Asia (1968); and CHARLES NORTON ELIOT, Hinduism and Buddhism: An Historical Sketch, 3 vol. (1921). |
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For the dietary laws and customs of
Japan and China, see ROBERT N. BELLAH, Tokugawa
Religion (1957); GEORGE DE VOS and HIROSHI WAGATSUMA (eds.), Japan's
Invisible Race: Caste in Culture and Personality (1966); KENNETH K.S. CH'EN,
Buddhism in China (1964); and ARTHUR
F. WRIGHT, Buddhism in Chinese History (1959). |
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JAMES HASTINGS (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, 13 vol. (1908-26, reprinted
1955), although outdated, is a very complete general source. See also the Histoire
générale des religions, 2nd ed., 2 vol. (1960); Symbolisme
cosmique et monuments religieux, 2 vol. (1953), texts and illustrations from
an exhibit at the Musée Guimet, Paris; and Le
Symbolisme cosmique des monuments religieux (1957), the proceedings of an
international conference of the Istituto per il Medio ed Estremo-Oriente, Rome.
For the ancient period, see CHARLES V. DAREMBERG and EDMOND SAGLIO (eds.), Dictionnaire
des antiquités grecques et romaines .
. . , 5 vol. (1877-1919); PIERRE LAVEDAN, Dictionnaire illustré de la mythologie et des antiquités
grecques et romaines (1931); and MIRCEA ELIADE, Le
Mythe de l'éternel retour (1949; Eng. trans., The Myth of the Eternal Return, 1954, reissued 1989). |
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JEANNINE AUBOYER, Introduction à l'étude de l'art de l'Inde (1965), is a
basic work on the Holy Place; for the principal components, see JAMES FERGUSSON,
Tree and Serpent Worship, 2nd ed.
(1873), which uses Indian facts as a base but makes many comparisons with data
from antiquity. This work is complemented by ODETTE VIENNOT, Le
Culte de l'arbre dans l'Inde ancienne (1954).
JEANNINE AUBOYER, Le Trône et son
symbolisme dans l'Inde ancienne (1949), makes many references to the role
and the morphology of the throne (royal and divine) in ancient and modern
civilizations. D.R. SHASTRI, Origin and
Development of the Rituals of Ancestor Worship in India (1963), is helpful.
JEAN PRZYLUSKI, "Le Symbolisme du pilier de Sarnath," in Mélanges d'Orientalisme, vol. 2 (1932), deals with the gnomon
and the cosmic pivot. See also LEOPOLD M. CADIERE, Croyances et pratiques religieuses des Annamites dans les environs de
Hue, 2 vol. (1918-19). |
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For architectural symbolism, GEORGE
COEDES, Pour mieux comprendre Angkor, rev.
2nd ed. (1947; Eng. trans., Angkor: An
Introduction, 1963), contains pertinent information in the chapters on
temples and tombs and on architectural symbolism. ROLF A. STEIN,
"Architecture et pensée religieuse en Extrême-Orient," Arts
Asiatiques, 4:163-186 (1957), deals with tents used in Central Asia,
especially Siberia, and Rupestral temples. |
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Icons and ritual symbols are discussed
in J.N. BANERJEA, The Development of Hindu
Iconography, 2nd ed. (1956), particularly ch. 2, "The Antiquity of
Image-Worship in India," ch. 5, "Deities and Their Emblems on Early
Indian Seals," and ch. 8, "Canons of Iconometry"; GEORGE COEDES (op.
cit.), ch. 3; and PIERRE FRANCASTEL (ed.), Emblèmes,
totems, blasons (1964), an exhibition catalog produced by the Musée
Guimet, Paris. |
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Cultic and ritual objects are discussed
in HENRIETTE DEMOULIN-BERNARD, Masques
. .
. exposés
dans l'annexe du Musée Guimet en décembre 1959 (1965); for
Judaism, see JAMES HASTINGS, A Dictionary
of the Bible, rev. ed. (1963); for Christianity, Historia
Religionum, vol. 1, Religions of the
Past (1969); and OSCAR CULLMANN, Urchristentum
und Gottesdienst, 2nd ed. (1950; Eng. trans., Early Christian Worship, 1953); for Hinduism, The Cultural Heritage of India, vol. 1, Vedic Rituals, rev. ed. (1958); and PAUL E. DUMONT, L'Ashvamedha:
descriptions du sacrifice solennel du cheval dans le culte védique (1927);
for Buddhism, Hôbôgirin:
dictionnaire encyclopédique du Bouddhisme .
. . , 4 vol. to date (1937-67); and GEORGE P. MALALASEKERA (ed.), Encyclopaedia
of Buddhism (1961- ), appearing in fascicles; for the Indian world, JAN
GONDA, Die Religionen Indiens, 3 vol. (1960-64); for Indonesia, WALDEMAR
STOEHR and PIET ZOETMULDER, Die Religionen
Indonesiens (1965); for the Islamic world, the Encyclopaedia of Islam, 5 vol. (1908-38; new ed., 1960- ); for
Tibet, ROBERT B. EKVALL, Religious
Observances in Tibet (1964); HELMUT HOFFMANN, Symbolik der tibetischen Religionen und des Schamanismus (1967);
ROLF A. STEIN, La Civilisation tibétaine
(1962); and TURRELL WYLIE, "Apropos of Tibetan Religious
Observances," Journal of the American
Oriental Society, 86:39-45 (1966); and for Japan, WILLIAM G. ASHTON, Shinto
(1905). |
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HILAIRE and MEYER HILER, A
Bibliography of Costume (1939, reprinted 1967), furnishes the widest
bibliographical account. For Christian dress, see HERBERT NORRIS, Church
Vestments: Their Origin and Development (1949); and CYRIL E. POCKNEE, Liturgical
Vesture: Its Origins and Development (1960), a succinct, well-illustrated
account. All previous research was superseded by JOSEPH BRAUN, Die
liturgische Gewandung im Occident und Orient . . . (1907), which marked a turning point in liturgiological studies.
JOHN B. O'CONNELL, The Celebration of
Mass, new ed. (1956), a handbook for priests, is a study of the rubrics.
This can be supplemented by ADRIAN FORTESCUE, Ceremonies of the Roman Rite Described, 12th rev. ed. (1962), which
indicates the appropriate use of garments and is a standard work on Roman
Catholic ritual. Concerning Orthodox vesture, N.F. ROBINSON, Monasticism
in the Orthodox Churches (1916, reprinted 1971); and A.N. SVIRIN, Drevnerusskoe
shit'e (1963), focussing on embroidery for vestments, are descriptive rather
than historical or analytical in methodology. Protestant vesture has not
attracted the attention of liturgists, but PERCY DEARMER, The Parson's Handbook, 13th rev. ed. (1965); and CHARLES WALKER, The
Ritual Reason Why, new ed. (1931), treat the subject from a High Anglican
standpoint. On religious dress in Judaism, The
Universal Jewish Encyclopaedia, 10 vol. (1939-43); and WILLIAM OESTERLEY and
G.H. BOX, The Religion and Worship of the Synagogue (1907), are useful. On Islamic
dress, there is MOHAMMAD BAQIR OLMAJLISI, Helyet ol-motaqqin (1952). On East Asian religions, JEAN HERBERT, Shintô
(1967), is a standard study of the subject and incorporates drawings of
priestly attire. S. ONO, Shinto: The Kami
Way (1960), also illustrates priestly attire. On Buddhist religious dress
and vestments, The Book of the Discipline,
vol. 4, trans. by I.B. HORNER (1951), gives the early Buddhist traditions
about "the robe." HOLMES WELCH, The
Practice of Chinese Buddhism, vol. 1, 1900-1950
(1967), contains much incidental material about monastic vestments, with
photographs. |
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E.O. JAMES, Seasonal Feasts and Festivals (1961), is a classic work on feasts
and festivals of seasonal renewal and on Western folk festivals and customs from
prehistoric times to the early 20th century. MIRCEA ELIADE, The
Sacred and the Profane (1959), is a classic treatment of the concept of
sacred time. W. BREDE KRISTENSEN, The
Meaning of Religion (1960), is a phenomenological treatment of feasts and
festivals. C. JOUCO BLEEKER and GEO WIDENGREN (eds.), Historia
Religionum: Handbook for the History of Religions, 2 vol. (1969-71),
incorporates feasts and festivals into the general framework of particular
religions. H.W. PARKE, Festivals of the
Athenians (1977), describes these ancient celebrations. WALTER KRICKEBERG et
al., Die Religionen des Alten Amerika (1961; Eng. trans., Pre-Columbian
American Religions, 1968), includes treatment of various feasts, festivals,
and associated rites. JOHN S. MBITI, African
Religions and Philosophy, pp. 110-165 (1969), covers feasts and festivals
associated with African passage rites. DERK BODDE, Festivals in Classical China (1975), has important information on
the Han dynasty. JEAN HERBERT, Aux Sources
du Japon: le Shintô (1964; Eng. trans., Shinto, 1967), covers the feasts and festivals of Shinto in
detail (pp. 147-224). JOHN B. NOSS, Man's
Religions, 6th ed. (1980), provides the best single-volume coverage of the
feasts and festivals of the various religions of the world. P. RAFAEL AVILA, Worship
and Politics (1981), is a historical overview of religious feasts. |
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