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Swedenborg was born at Stockholm. His
father, Jesper Swedberg, was a prominent member of the Swedish clergy, court
chaplain, professor of theology in the University of Uppsala, and later bishop
of Skara. When the family was ennobled in 1719, it took the name Swedenborg.
After graduating from the University of Uppsala in 1709, the young Swedenborg
spent five years abroad. He had become fascinated by mathematics and the natural
sciences, and to study them he visited England, Holland, France, and Germany,
meeting some of the representatives of the new sciences there and learning
practical mechanical skills. Swedenborg's inventive and mechanical genius
flowered at this time, and his speculations ranged from a method of finding
terrestrial longitude by the Moon to new methods of constructing docks and even
to tentative suggestions for the submarine and the airplane.
He returned to Sweden in 1715 and soon
began to publish that country's first scientific journal, called Daedalus
Hyperboreus, in which he wrote numerous reports of his projects and
discoveries and of the inventions of Sweden's foremost mechanical talent of the
time, Christopher Polhem. King Charles XII made the young scientist an assistant
to Polhem by appointing him assessor extra
ordinem ("extraordinary") at the Royal Board of Mines. In this
office, and later as assessor, he devoted himself for 30 years to the
development and improvement of Sweden's metal-mining industries. At this time he
devoted several years to publishing reports and treatises on various scientific
and philosophical problems--e.g., cosmology,
corpuscular philosophy, mathematics, and human sensory perceptions. Now and then
he also found time to write poems in Latin, some of which were published. In
1718 he published the first work on algebra in the Swedish language, and in 1721
he published a work on chemistry and physics.
Swedenborg was ennobled in 1719. After a
second journey abroad in 1721-22, during which he published two Latin volumes on
natural philosophy and chemistry, he wrote little or nothing for more than 10
years. But when he set out for a third European journey in 1733, it became
obvious that these years had been filled with reading and reflection in addition
to his ordinary work as a civil servant. In 1734 he published in Leipzig his Opera
Philosophica et Mineralia ("Philosophical and Logical Works") in
three folio volumes, the first of which, the Principia
Rerum Naturalium ("Principles of Natural Things"), contains
Swedenborg's mature philosophy of nature. In this work he reached by inductive
argument several conclusions that resemble the theories of modern scientists.
Swedenborg posited that matter consists of particles that are indefinitely
divisible, and that these particles are in constant vortical (swirling) motion.
Furthermore, these particles are themselves composed of smaller particles in
motion. This idea strongly resembles the modern conception of the atom as
described in terms of a nucleus and its electrons. Swedenborg's suggestion
concerning the formation of planets in the solar system was a precursor of the
Kant-Laplace nebular theory (i.e., that
the Sun and planets come from a common nebula).
Investigation
of "the Kingdom of the Soul." After he
published the Principia and a small
work on the infinite in 1734, Swedenborg returned home. His father died in 1735,
and in the next year he was granted a new leave of absence from his office as
assessor. This time he went to France, Italy, and Holland. In Amsterdam he
completed and published a new work in two great volumes, called Oeconomia
Regni Animalis (1740-41; The Economy
of the Animal Kingdom), and in November 1740 he was back in Stockholm.
Oeconomia
Regni Animalis represents a new stage in
Swedenborg's scientific career. As he had sought to find the "soul" of
creation in pure motion, he now sought to understand the soul of man and to find
it in its own kingdom--i.e., the body.
Here Swedenborg made a thorough study of human anatomy and physiology, with
special attention to the blood and the brain. But he was not studying the human
body as a subject per se. What he intended was to fulfill a program that he had
formulated in 1734--i.e., to prove the
immortality of the soul to the senses themselves. He believed the soul to be the
inmost life of the blood and located in the brain, specifically in the cellular
cortex. Swedenborg's method as a researcher consisted mainly in collecting facts
from microscopists and experimentalists and drawing his own conclusions from
them. His energy and his erudition were overwhelming, and he has been given
credit for some contributions to the localization of the mental processes. His
anatomical works, however, remained almost unnoticed by contemporary science,
and, when they were discovered by some 19th-century scholars, science had moved
beyond them. Oeconomia Regni Animalis was
followed by a whole series of sketches and small treatises in which Swedenborg
attempted to round out his psychological investigations. Some of these became a
part of the three volumes of the Regnum
Animale (The Animal Kingdom, 2 vol.)--planned to be 17 volumes--that
Swedenborg himself published in 1744-45.
Swedenborg's
religious crisis. These years of anatomical
research were concluded by a painful religious crisis from which there survives
a unique document. It is usually called the Journal
of Dreams (1743-44) and was obviously meant to be a journal of his new
travels beginning in July 1743, but the rather trivial notices were suddenly
interrupted. There follows instead a list of various dreams recalled from
earlier years and a detailed report on his spiritual experiences, mostly at
night, from March to October 1744. Some of the dreams were of a grossly sexual
character and caused many pious readers quite a shock when the journal was
published in 1859. But the feelings of guilt Swedenborg evidently experienced at
this time were not concentrated on his sexual impulses but rather on his
intellectual pride, his burning ambition to be recognized as a great man of
science. On April 7, 1744, he had his first vision of Christ, which gave him a
temporary rest from the temptations of his own pride and the evil spirits he
believed to be around him. A definite call to abandon worldly learning occurred
in April 1745, Swedenborg told his friends in his later years. The call
apparently came in the form of a waking vision of the Lord. Swedenborg
thereafter left his remaining works in the natural sciences unfinished.
For the remainder of his long career,
Swedenborg devoted his enormous energy to interpreting the Bible and to relating
what he had seen and heard in the world of spirits and angels. From 1749 to 1771
he wrote some 30 volumes, all of them in Latin and the major part anonymously.
Among these were Arcana Coelestia, 8
vol. (1749-56; Heavenly Arcana) and Apocalypsis
Explicata, 4 vol. (1785-89; Apocalypse
Explained), which contain his commentaries on the internal spiritual meaning
of Genesis and Exodus and on the Book of Revelation, respectively. De Coelo et ejus Mirabilibus et de Inferno (1758;
On Heaven and Its Wonders and on Hell)
is perhaps his best-known theological work. He gave an admirably clear summary
of his theological thinking in his last work, the Vera
Christiana Religio (1771; True
Christian Religion), which was written when he was 83.
Swedenborg asserted that his entry into
the field of theological study was in response to a divine vision and call; that
his spiritual senses were opened so that he might be in the spiritual world as
consciously as in the material world; and that the long series of exegetical and
theological works that he wrote constituted a revelation from God for a new age
of truth and reason in religion. Furthermore, he held that this new revelation
of God was what was meant by the Second Coming. Because of his otherworldly
experiences, Swedenborg has often been regarded either as a spiritualist
"medium" or as a mystic, but in his dry, matter-of-fact accounts of
the spiritual world and in his acutely reasoned theology he actually retains his
lifelong attitude of the scientific and philosophic investigator.
Swedenborg consistently maintained that
the infinite, indivisible power and life within all creation is God. In his
theology he asserts the absolute unity of God in both essence (essentia)
and being (esse). The Father, the Son,
and the Holy Spirit represent a trinity of essential qualities in God; love,
wisdom, and activity. This divine trinity is reproduced in human beings in the
form of the trinity of soul, body, and mind. Swedenborg accepted that all
creation has its origin in the divine love and wisdom and asserted that all
created things are forms and effects of specific aspects of that love and wisdom
and thus "correspond," on the material plane, to spiritual realities.
This true order of creation, however, has been disturbed by man's misuse of his
free will. He has diverted his love from God to his own ego, and thus evil has
come into the world.
In order to redeem and save mankind, the
divine being of God had to come into the world in the material, tangible form of
a human being--i.e., Jesus Christ.
Christ's soul partook of the divine being itself, but in order that there might
be an intimate contact of God with fallen mankind, Jesus assumed from Mary a
body and a human nature comprising all the planes of human life. During the
course of his life on earth, Jesus resisted every possible temptation and lived
to their divine fullness the truths of the Word of God; in so doing he laid
aside all the human qualities he had received from Mary, and his nature was
revealed as the divine embodiment of the divine soul. Redemption, for
Swedenborg, consisted in mankind being re-created in God's image through the
vehicle of Christ's glorification. It was through the example of Christ's
victory over all temptation and all evil that men could achieve a similar
harmonious unification between their spiritual and their material aspects.
Swedenborg rejected the tripersonalism of the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity (i.e.,
the one God revealed in the Persons of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit). To him
the Trinity was in one Person, the Father being the originating divine being
itself, the Son the human embodiment of that divine soul, and the Holy Spirit
the outflowing activity of Jesus, or the "Divine Human."
Swedenborg also rejected the orthodox
conceptions of redemption. To him the redemption of mankind represented a
deliverance from the domination of evil. The hells, which are the communities of
the spirits of evil men in the spiritual world, were aspiring to force
themselves upon men's minds, destroying their freedom to discern between truth
and falsity and therefore between good and evil. By admitting into himself the
evil spirits' temptations and by his complete resistance to them, Jesus broke
their power; and the inflowing of the divine being into the human plane thus
perfected interposed an eternal and infinitely powerful barrier between the
hells and mankind. Human beings are thus saved from the forcible imposition of
the hells upon themselves and are thus free to know and obey the truth. Man's
salvation depends on his acceptance of and response to divine truth.
In his massive exegetical and
theological volumes, Swedenborg attempted to interpret the Scriptures in the
light of the "correspondence" between the spiritual and the material
planes. He viewed references in the Bible to mundane historical matters as
symbolically communicated spiritual truths, the key to which he tried to find
through detailed and voluminous commentaries and interpretations. Swedenborg
died in London in 1772, where he was buried in the Swedish Church. At the
request of the Swedish government, his body was removed to Uppsala cathedral in
1908.
Swedenborg never acted as a preacher but
rather relied totally on the effect of his huge Latin volumes. The first
Swedenborgian societies appeared in the 1780s, and the first independent
congregation, the origin of the various Church of the New Jerusalem
organizations, was founded in London by the end of that decade. Swedenborg's
influence was by no means restricted to his immediate disciples. His visions and
religious ideas have been a source of inspiration for a number of prominent
writers, including Honoré de Balzac, Charles Baudelaire, Ralph Waldo
Emerson, William Butler Yeats, and August Strindberg. His theological writings
have been translated into many languages, and there is a constant flow of new
editions. |
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