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유대교의 전승
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예술과 형상학
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Although the Second Commandment (Ex. 20:4; Deut. 5:8), "You shall
not make yourself a graven image, or any likeness of anything that is in
heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water
under the earth," has indeed been understood as absolutely
prohibiting any and all artistic representation, this is not the only way
in which these words may be interpreted. What is intended is a prohibition
against the construction of such likenesses as were the object of worship
in the cultural area in which the Israelites dwelt. Even in the Bible
there are reports of artistic productivity in the construction of the tent
sanctuary and its ritual vessels (Ex. 25-31) and of the Temple in
Jerusalem (I Kings 6-7). The literalness and rigour with which the
commandment was interpreted depended upon the larger situation of the
community, so that during periods of external pressures toward religious
conformity, such as the reign of Antiochus IV Epiphanes in Antioch
(175-164 BCE), the anti-iconic attitude sharpened. Similarly, during the
Roman occupation, the presence of the battle standards of the legions with
their animal representations was looked upon as an affront, while extreme
Pietists would not even handle Roman coinage because of the images stamped
on it. On the other hand, the walls of a 3rd-century-CE synagogue in
Doura-Europus in Syria are covered from floor to ceiling with biblical
scenes with human representations, and a number of synagogues in Palestine
had elaborate mosaic floors with the signs of the zodiac, representations
of the seasons, and the like. Further, illuminated manuscripts from the
medieval period in Europe were frequently decorated with biblical figures,
some quite clearly copied from Christian prototypes. A fascinating
mediating position is to be seen in a Haggada, in which the human figures
have bird heads. Synagogues from a later, although preemancipation, period
(before the 18th century) were often decorated with animal figures. In the
modern period the avoidance of human figures has not been entirely
accomplished, although nothing like the decorations of Doura-Europus has
appeared. (see also Index: icon) |
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Nonetheless, given this general anti-iconic attitude, much of Jewish
artistic endeavour has been directed toward the creation of ceremonial
objects: Qiddush goblets, candlesticks and candelabra, spice boxes for the
Havdala ceremony at the end of the Sabbath, ornamented containers for the mezuza
(a parchment on which is written Deut 6:4-9 and 11:13-21, fastened to
the doorpost on the right side as one enters), the silver crowns placed on
the Torah scrolls, together with the mantles and breastplates for the
same, and many other objects designed to embellish the performance of the
large number of ritual acts of the individual and the community. All of
these vary in artistic quality, from the work of simple artisans to
exquisitely produced works of master craftsmen. |
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The building of synagogues, too, is an expression of artistic interest
and concern, as well as of religious and social function. Nothing is known
of these edifices, if indeed there were any, until the Greco-Roman period.
Then the Roman basilica often provided the appropriate model. What was
required was a spacious hall for assembly, and galleries for the women,
and this form served that purpose very well. However synagogues were
furnished before the destruction of the Second Temple, after that event
some attempt seems to have been made to transfer some of the latter's
appurtenances to the former, a move that was successfully resisted. When
possible, the synagogue stood on a hill. Before it stood a walled entrance
court with a fountain for ablutions. Before the Temple destruction, the
building may have been oriented with its doors facing eastward, but
afterward they faced Jerusalem; still later, when the holy ark containing
the Torah scrolls was placed in a fixed position, the orientation was
reversed so that the central gate would not be blocked; ultimately, the
ark was placed in or against the east wall, without reference to the
actual direction of Jerusalem. As the Diaspora grew larger, the new
communities adapted the architectural forms of the enveloping culture. The
surviving buildings of the Muslim period in Spain are often built with the
horseshoe arches and decorated with the exquisite stucco arabesques that
mark the era. The medieval period in Christian Europe saw a revival of a
very strict anti-iconic attitude and a gradual rejection of the church
edifice in favour of secular buildings as a model for the synagogue. The
increasingly limited role of the Jew in that society and the enlargement
of restrictions by church and state made it necessary to modify the
synagogal structure. The doors no longer were in the wall facing the ark;
the courtyard grew smaller; galleries were discontinued (side rooms now
serving as the women's section); and a double- rather than a triple-aisled
construction was largely favoured. Similar developments took place in
eastern Europe with the building of fortress-synagogues and the remarkable
wooden synagogues of Poland. In the early postemancipation period, Baroque
style had its day, followed by Greek temples, Romanesque, Gothic, and
pseudo-Byzantine churches, and pseudo-Moorish mosques. In the most recent
period, the various schools of functionalism and their commercial
descendants have come to the fore. The best of these have brought together
fine architectural design and beautifully conceived and executed
decoration. The interior arrangement, even in some traditional synagogues,
has been influenced by the Protestant sermon-centred form of worship, so
that some of the unique forms that marked older structures are absent. The
holy ark is, however, still a centre of attention and has often been
treated in interesting and striking ways. |
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As noted above, the use of paintings in the decoration of synagogues
goes back to at least the 3rd century CE and is found in the late
pre-emancipation and modern synagogues as well. Manuscripts, too, were
illuminated with miniatures and the Renaissance period saw the appearance
of beautifully decorated Scrolls of Esther and ketubbot (marriage
contracts). Nonetheless, the appearance of Jewish artists in painting and
sculpture is a modern phenomenon. Beginning in the 19th century, interest
grew apace and more and more Jews are to be found, often in the
avant-garde of these fields. Some, such as Marc Chagall and Jacques
Lipchitz, have done specifically religious art. (see also Index:
ketubba) |
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The description of the synagogue service above noted the role of the hazzan,
or cantor. It is he who reads the service and declaims the scriptural
lessons to certain set musical modes that vary with the season and
occasion. Many of these call for melodic responses on the part of the
congregation. The origins and varying developments of these chants are
ancient, often obscure, and equally complicated. Whatever the basic
materials, these were enlarged, varied, corrupted, and reworked over the
centuries in the various environments in which the Jewish communities have
lived. In modern times musicologists have begun to examine with great care
the history of synagogal music, analyzing its basic structures and its
relationship to the music of Christian liturgical traditions. In the 19th
century in Western Europe much of the traditional music was either
discarded or re-worked under the influence of western forms and styles. In
addition the pipe-organ was introduced and was the centre of stormy
controversy. |
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Literature has been throughout the ages the home of Jewish artistic
activity. The Hebrew Bible is a work of monumental artistry, exhibiting
grandeur of form and language in historical narrative, poetry, rhetoric,
and aphorism. The extrascriptural writings of the period, although their
originals have often vanished, still disclose literary genius of a high
order in translation. The documents of the rabbinic tradition are not
often looked at with an eye to their literary worth but much of the
material, particularly the Haggadic portions of the Midrashim, reveals a
noteworthy sensitivity to the uses of language. In the medieval period
much attention was given to the production of piyyutim, liturgical
poetry with which to embellish the Siddur(prayer book), itself a
collection containing much imaginative, as well as pedestrian, writing. In
the Islamic world, under the influence of Arabic poetry, Hebrew
poetry rose to a high peak in both liturgical and secular forms. The
Middle Ages in the Rhineland also saw the beginnings of the Jewish form of
Middle High German that was, over the centuries, to develop into an
autonomous Jewish language, Yiddish, which, in the 19th century, became a
literary vehicle of very high order. The same period saw the beginnings of
the recreation of Hebrew into a literary language that has become the
basis of the spoken vernacular of the State of Israel and of a flourishing
literature encompassing every branch of the field. Since the emancipation
at the end of the 18th century, Jews in western Europe and later in the
United States have turned to literature in the vernaculars of their
countries, and have produced writers of note dealing with both Jewish and
general themes. (L.H.S.) (see also Hebrew literature) |
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