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Gnosticism, philosophical and religious movement prominent in the
Greco-Roman world in the 2nd century AD. While Gnosticism drew from and
influenced in turn many traditional religions, its effect was most clearly felt
on nascent Christianity, in which it led to the formation of the canon, creed,
and episcopal organization.
The designation Gnosticism, derived from the Greek gnostikos (one who
has gnosis, or "secret knowledge"), is a term of modern
scholarship. Evidence for the Gnostic phenomenon, found in the Church Fathers
who opposed Gnostic teachings (Irenaeus, c. 185; Hippolytus, c. 230;
Epiphanius, c. 375) and in the Gnostic writings themselves, reveals a
diversity in theology, ethics, and ritual that defies strict classification. Yet
Gnostic sects appear to have shared an emphasis on the redemptive power of
esoteric knowledge, acquired not by learning or empirical observation but by
divine revelation.
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History.
The origins of the Gnostic world
view have been sought by scholars in the dualism of Iranian religion, the
allegorical Idealism of the Middle Platonic philosophers, and the
apocalypticism of certain Jewish mystics. There are analogies also with
Egyptian and Mesopotamian thought. It was only with the rise of
Christianity, however, that Gnostic syncretism came to full expression.
The first Gnostic about whom
something can be said with confidence is Simon
Magus (q.v.), a 1st-century
Jewish heterodox teacher who introduced the fundamental Gnostic conception
that evil resulted from a break within the Godhead. But Simon's gnosis
remained essentially Jewish and monotheistic, as did that of the Gnostic
circles to which later parts of the New Testament allude.
The dualistic phase was reached
after the expansion of Gnosticism into the Hellenistic world and under the
influence of Platonic philosophy, from which was borrowed the doctrine that
a lower demiurge was responsible for the creation of this world. This
teaching is to be found in the Apocryphon
of John (early 2nd century) and other documents of popular gnosis
discovered near Naj' Hammadi in upper Egypt in the 1940s and in the Pistis
Sophia, a 3rd-century Gnostic work in Coptic belonging to the same
school. The learned gnosis of Valentinus ,
Basilides (qq.v.),
and their schools presupposes this popular gnosis,
which, however, has been thoroughly Hellenized and Christianized and
sometimes comes very near to the views of Middle Platonism.
Eastern Gnosticism took a somewhat
different course. Under the influence of traditional Iranian religion, the
semi-Gnostic Manichaeism developed an absolute cosmic dualism between soul
and matter. Moreover, it showed the enormous influence of Syrian asceticism,
but it was equally rooted in popular Gnosticism and preserved its essential
doctrines.
Nature.
In the Gnostic view, the unconscious
self of man is consubstantial with the Godhead, but because of a tragic fall
it is thrown into a world that is completely alien to its real being.
Through revelation from above, man becomes conscious of his origin, essence,
and transcedent destiny. Gnostic revelation is to be distinguished both from
philosophical enlightenment, because it cannot be acquired by the forces of
reason, and from Christian revelation, because it is not rooted in history
and transmitted by Scripture. It is rather the intuition of the mystery of
the self.
The world, produced from evil matter
and possessed by evil demons, cannot be a creation of a good God; it is
mostly conceived of as an illusion, or an abortion, dominated by Yahweh, the
Jewish demiurge, whose creation and history are depreciated. This world is
therefore alien to God, who is for the Gnostics depth and silence, beyond
any name or predicate, the absolute, the source of good spirits who together
form the pleroma,
or realm of light.
These conceptions are expressed in
various myths, which employ material from many traditional religions but
serve to express a basic experience that is new, the discovery of the
unconscious self or spirit in man which sleeps in him until awakened by the
Saviour. The Gnostic sects of the 2nd century made use of Hebrew and
Christian religious writings, employing the allegorical method to extricate
Gnostic meanings from them.
Most Gnostic groups seem to have
been organized as schools, in which the authoritative teaching was
transmitted, interpreted, and kept secret. There was wide disagreement among
groups as to the importance of rites, with some practicing quasi-Christian
Eucharists and baptisms and others rejecting all aspects of conventional
worship, including prayer, fasting, and almsgiving. Notions of ethics
likewise varied widely.
Influence.
The development of Christian
doctrine was to a large extent a reaction against Gnosticism. The
formulation of creedal symbols, the canonization of the New Testament
Scriptures, and the emphasis on episcopal authority all were made necessary
by the Gnostics' claims. Moreover, in some measure the Gnostics were the
first theologians, and their systems prompted the systemization of early
Christian thought. In addition, they kept alive the great issues of freedom,
redemption, and grace, which for a time lost their emphasis among Christian
writers. In a later period, the theology of Augustine owed a great deal to
his early experience as a Manichaean. |
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