Unitarianism

유니테리언주의

Universalism

만인구원설

Theological foundations for the view of God as a unity and for the humanity of Jesus are found in 2nd- and 3rd-century monarchianism and in the teachings of Arius (c. 250-c. 336) and his followers (Arians)--both early groups of Christians whose doctrines were later declared heretical by the church. The modern roots of Unitarianism are traced to the 16th-century Protestant Reformation, when certain liberal, radical, and rationalist reformers revived the Platonic emphasis on reason and the unity of God. Many such thinkers fled Italy during the Inquisition. Michael Servetus, a leading Neoplatonic Unitarian, fled eventually to Geneva, where he was burned at the stake by Calvinists. Some Italians found refuge in Poland. Chief among these was Faustus Socinus, who arrived at Krakow in 1579. Socinus' theology stressed the complete humanity of Jesus, a view still held by most Unitarians and Universalists. In Transylvania, an important early figure was Ferenc David, who was convicted as a heretic for teaching that prayers could not be addressed to Jesus (since Jesus was merely human). He died in prison in 1579. The church that David founded in Transylvania is the world's oldest extant Unitarian body. (see also Index: Arianism)

Although some unorthodox thinkers in England drew upon Socinus and others, the mainstream of British Unitarianism, like that of American Unitarianism, grew out of Calvinist Puritanism. Calvin's doctrine of providence, coupled with an increasingly scientific view of the universe, led to a decline in religious orthodoxy and an increased emphasis on reason and morals among the more liberal Calvinist clergy. Joseph Priestley, an English scientist and dissenting minister, was among those who began preaching "Unitarian Christianity," emphasizing Jesus' humanity, God's omnipotence, and the rational faculty of man. The English Unitarians became strong in Parliament, the professions, and social reform. The name "Free Christian" was adopted by some groups who opposed the name "Unitarian" as sectarian and divisive. The movement fared somewhat less well in Scotland and Ireland. (see also Index: United Kingdom)

American Unitarianism developed more slowly out of New England Congregationalist churches that rejected the 18th-century revival movement. Congregational autonomy protected from controversy those ministers who stressed moderation, reason, and morals over spiritual revivalism. The Transcendentalist movement of the 19th century injected Unitarianism with a new interest in the intuitive and emotional aspects of religion. When Unitarianism spread into the frontier of the Middle West, its religious fundamentals changed to human aspiration and scientific truth, rather than Christianity and the Bible. (see also Index: United States)

Both British and American Unitarian groups formed national associations in 1825. In 1961 American Unitarians merged with the national organization of Universalist churches, with whom they shared a history of liberal idealism. In polity, most Unitarians and Universalists are congregational. Forms of worship, based on Protestant tradition, vary widely from group to group. See also Universalism .

하느님의 단일성과 예수의 인성(人性)에 대한 신학적 기반은 2~3세기의 단일신론과 아리우스 및 그 추종자들(아리우스파)의 가르침에서 발견된다. 후에 교회는 이 두 분파의 교리를 모두 이단으로 선언했다. 유니테리언주의의 현대적 뿌리는 16세기 프로테스탄트 종교개혁으로 거슬러 올라가는데, 그당시 자유주의적이고 급진적이며 이성주의적인 개혁자들은 플라톤이 강조했던 이성과 하느님의 단일성을 부활시켰다. 이들 사상가 중 많은 사람이 종교재판 때 이탈리아를 떠났다. 주도적인 신플라톤주의적 유니테리언주의자였던 미겔 세르베투스는 결국 제네바로 도망쳤으나 그곳에서 칼뱅주의자들에 의해 화형에 처해졌다. 폴란드에 은신한 사람들도 있었다. 이들 망명자 중 주요인물인 파우스투스 소키누스는 1579년 크라쿠프에 도착했다. 소키누스의 신학은 예수의 완전한 인성을 강조했으며, 대부분의 유니테리언주의자들과 만인구원론자들은 지금도 이 교리를 견지하고 있다. 트란실바니아에서 활동한 초기의 주요인물은 페렌츠 다비드였는데, 예수는 인간에 불과하기 때문에 예수에게 기도할 수 없다고 가르쳐 이단으로 단죄되었다. 다비드는 1579년에 옥사했는데, 그가 세운 교회는 현재 남아 있는 유니테리언 교회 중 가장 오래된 것이다.

영국의 일부 비정통 사상가들도 소키누스와 다른 사람들에게 의지하기는 했지만, 영국 유니테리언주의의 주요흐름은 미국 유니테리언주의와 마찬가지로 칼뱅주의적 청교도사상에서 성장했다. 섭리에 대한 칼뱅의 교리가 점증하는 과학적 우주관과 결합되자 정통 교리는 쇠퇴하게 되었고, 보다 자유주의적인 칼뱅주의 성직자들은 이성과 도덕을 점점 강조하게 되었다. 영국의 과학자이며 비국교도 목사였던 조지프 프리스틀리는 예수의 인성과 하느님의 전능함, 인간의 합리적 기능을 강조하면서 '유니테리언 그리스도교'를 전파하기 시작했다. 영국의 유니테리언주의자들은 의회와 전문직업, 사회개혁 분야에서 세력을 얻게 되었다. '유니테리언'이라는 명칭이 분파적이고 분열적인 느낌을 준다고 해서 이 명칭을 거부했던 몇몇 그룹은 '자유 그리스도교도'라는 이름을 채택했다. 유니테리언 운동은 스코틀랜드와 아일랜드에서는 그다지 많은 호응을 얻지 못했다. 미국 유니테리언주의는 18세기의 부흥 운동을 받아들이지 않았던 뉴잉글랜드 회중교회에서 좀더 서서히 발전했다. 회중교회의 자율성에 힘입어 영적인 신앙 부흥운동보다는 중용·이성·도덕을 강조했던 목사들은 논쟁에 휘말리지 않았다. 19세기의 초월주의 운동은 종교의 직관적이고 감정적인 면에 새로운 관심을 쏟으면서 유니테리언주의를 도입했다. 유니테리언주의가 미국 중서부지역으로 보급되면서 유니테리언주의의 종교적 기초는 그리스도교와 성서가 아닌 인간의 열망과 과학적 진리로 대체되었다. 영국과 미국의 유니테리언주의 분파들은 1825년에 각각 영국 유니테리언 협회와 미국 유니테리언 협회를 조직했다. 1961년 미국 유니테리언주의자들은 미국 만인구원론자 교회 조직에 흡수되었다. 만인구원론자 교회와 유니테리언주의는 자유주의적 이상주의의 역사를 공유하고 있다. 대부분의 유니테리언주의자들과 만인구원론자들의 교회정치는 회중교회 형태이다. 예배 형식은 프로테스탄트 전통에 기초를 두었지만 분파마다 매우 다양하다.→ 만인구원설

Universalism

만인구원설

Unitarianism

유니테리언주의

 Although Universalism has appeared at various times in Christian history, most notably in the works of Origen of Alexandria in the 3rd century, as an organized movement it had its beginnings in the United States in the middle of the 18th century. The Enlightenment was responsible for mitigating the sterner aspects of Calvinistic theology and preparing the way for the reemergence of the doctrine of universal salvation. The Universalists believed it impossible that a loving God would elect only a portion of mankind to salvation and doom the rest to eternal punishment. They insisted that punishment in the afterlife was for a limited period during which the soul was purified and prepared for eternity in the presence of God.

The forerunner of Universalism in the United States was George De Benneville (1703-93), who in 1741 migrated from Europe to Pennsylvania, where he preached and practiced medicine. The early Universalist movement was given its greatest impetus by the preaching of John Murray (1741-1815), who moved from England to colonial America in 1770. He propagated the doctrine throughout most of the colonies, often against much opposition from orthodox Christians who believed that Universalism would lead to immorality.

The Universalism of Murray was a modified Calvinism. Near the close of the 18th century Universalists were to follow Hosea Ballou in rejecting Calvinistic tenets. Ballou introduced a Unitarian conception of God and reinterpreted the atonement: the death of Jesus was not a vicarious atonement for the sins of mankind but rather a demonstration of God's infinite and unchangeable love for his children. Ballou also put great stress on the use of reason in religion.

From the 19th century, Universalists felt a close kinship with Unitarians, since the two groups shared many views and practices. Various attempts to unite the national bodies of the two denominations, the Universalist Church of America and the American Unitarian Association, culminated in the formation of the Unitarian Universalist Association in 1960 and formal merger in 1961.

Universalist churches are congregational in polity. Each church manages its own affairs but joins with other churches in district or regional groupings. The Unitarian Universalist Association consists of representatives of the local churches and the districts and seeks to give a continental voice to the movement. Each Universalist church is free to choose its own form of worship. Simple, nonliturgical services are most common, with great emphasis put on the sermon.

From the beginning, Universalists have differed widely in matters of belief. Attempts to write statements of faith, one as late as 1935, met with only partial success. Liberalism, freedom of individual interpretation, tolerance of diversity, agreement on methods of approaching theological and church issues, and belief in the inherent dignity of man have been the strongest elements keeping the movement together. Universalists generally stress the use of reason in religion and modification of belief in the light of the discoveries of science. Thus, the miraculous elements of traditional Christianity are rejected as incompatible with modern knowledge. Jesus is considered a great teacher and an example worthy of imitation, but he is not held to be divine. A broader conception of Universalism began to emerge in the 20th century. Although stressing their ties to the Christian tradition, Universalists were exploring the universal elements of religion and seeking closer relationships with non-Christian religions. See also Unitarianism .