The
Apostle Paul
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I.
Introduction
II.
Sources.
III.
Life.
1.
Early
life.
2.
Conversion.
3.
Paul
in Antioch.
4.
First
missionary journey.
5.
Second
missionary journey.
6.
Third
missionary journey.
7.
Arrest
and imprisonment.
IV.
Achievement and influence.
V.
Bibliography |
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The
Apostle Paul is an
outstanding figure in the history of Christianity. Converted only a few
years after the death of Jesus,
he became the leading Apostle (missionary)
of the new movement and played a decisive part in extending it beyond the
limits of Judaism to
become a worldwide religion. His surviving letters are the earliest extant
Christian writings. They reveal both theological skill and pastoral
understanding and have had lasting importance for Christian life and
thought. (see also Index: Pauline
letters) |
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There
are no reliable sources for Paul's life outside the New Testament. The
primary source is his own letters. Of these, Romans, I and II Corinthians,
and Galatians are indisputably genuine. Most scholars also accept
Philippians, I Thessalonians, and Philemon. Opinion is divided about
Ephesians, Colossians, and II Thessalonians. The Pastoral Letters (I and II
Timothy and Titus) are held by many scholars to have been written
considerably later than the time of Paul. The story of Paul's conversion and
missionary career is given in Acts,
probably written many years after his death. Some sections dealing with sea
journeys may be derived from the diary of a companion of Paul. Traditionally
this was thought to be Luke,
the evangelist and author of Acts, a view still held by a number of
scholars. For further information on the sources for Paul's life, see BIBLICAL
LITERATURE AND ITS CRITICAL INTERPRETATION: New
Testament literature . |
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Paul
was a Jew, born, perhaps in AD 10, at Tarsus, a city in Cilicia on the main
trade route between East and West, and the home of famous Stoic
philosophers. Like many of the Jews there he inherited Roman citizenship,
probably granted by the Romans as a reward for mercenary service in the
previous century. This fact explains his two names. He used his Jewish name,
Saul, within the Jewish community and his Roman surname, Paul, when speaking
Greek. Though he had a strict Jewish upbringing, he also grew up with a good
command of idiomatic Greek and the experience of a cosmopolitan city, which
fitted him for his special vocation to bring the gospel to the Gentiles
(non-Jews). At some stage he became an enthusiastic member of the Pharisees,
a Jewish sect that promoted purity and fidelity to the Law of Moses.
According to Acts, he received training as a rabbi in Jerusalem under
Gamaliel I. His knowledge of the Law and of rabbinic methods of interpreting
it is evident in his letters. Like most rabbis he supported himself with a
manual trade--tent making--probably learned from his father. It is clear
that he never met Jesus while in Jerusalem, if, indeed, he was there before
the Crucifixion. He learned enough about Jesus and his followers, however,
to regard the Christian movement as a threat to the Pharisaic Judaism that
he had embraced so eagerly. Thus he first appears on the scene of history as
a persecutor of the newly founded church.
Serious
persecution of Christians first arose in connection with converts among the
Hellenists (Greek-speaking Jews) in Jerusalem. When one of them, Stephen,
was stoned to death, the murderers "laid down their garments at the
feet of a young man named Saul" (Acts 7:58). At that time Paul shared
the sense of outrage aroused by the Hellenist converts. They had not only
proclaimed Jesus as the Messiah and heavenly Lord, a man who had been
crucified and therefore accursed by God (Deut. 21:23), but they also claimed
that the temple and its sacrifices were superseded by the sacrificial death
of Jesus and that therefore the Law could be disregarded (the subject of
another curse, Deut. 27:26). Paul thus joined in the effort to stamp out the
Christian movement. The Hellenist converts fled to the foreign cities where
they had family connections, while the original Aramaic-speaking group in
Jerusalem kept a low profile to avoid giving provocation. (see also Index: Hellenistic
Judaism)
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Paul,
in Galatians, bears out the impression given in Acts that he was converted
as a result of a vision on the road to Damascus, on his way to apprehend
some of the scattered converts. His own account is tantalizingly brief:
"he who had set me apart before I was born, and had called me through
his grace, was pleased to reveal his Son to me, in order that I might preach
him among the Gentiles" (Gal. 1:15-16). The longer description in Acts,
given three times, dramatizes what may have been essentially an inward
experience. It was certainly a moment of revelation, changing Paul from
bitter enmity to lifelong dedication to the Christian cause. (see also Index:
Galatians, The Letter of Paul to
the)
Paul's
conversion has often been explained psychologically as the resolution of an
inner conflict. But the notion that Paul was tormented by scruples rests on
a misunderstanding of Rom. 7. This chapter is concerned not with
autobiography but with universal experience seen in the light of mature
Christian understanding. Paul would not have spoken in these terms before
his conversion. In fact, it is clear from other passages that his early life
was free from such struggle. He excelled in zeal for the Law, and by its
standards his life was blameless. (see also Index:
Romans, Letter of Paul to the)
Paul's
own account is much more in keeping with Old Testament callings of a
prophet. Though it is impossible to state exactly what happened, the central
feature was certainly his vision of Jesus in glory. It convinced him that
Jesus was risen from the dead and exalted as Lord in heaven, as the
Christians claimed. It also was proof that Jesus had been crucified
wrongfully. Hence the curse did not apply, and his death could be understood
as a sacrifice on behalf of others.
To
Paul this had universal significance. Believing, like many Jews of his time,
that God's final Day of Judgment, on which he would come to free the world
from evil and to establish lasting peace and righteousness, was imminent,
Paul then saw his vocation to be a missionary to people of every nation to
prepare them for God's coming. The new feature of this expectation was the
place accorded to Jesus Christ. In agreement with the earliest apostolic
preaching, Paul believed that Jesus, having died for the sins of mankind,
was now reserved in heaven as God's agent for the judgment. Those that
believed in him and acknowledged him as Lord would have him as their
deliverer on that day. Thus faith
in Christ became the foundation of Paul's preaching. Along with this he
proclaimed the love of God shown in the sacrificial death of Christ, who
"loved me and gave himself for me" (Gal. 2:20). All his devotion
was transferred to this new centre. Formerly his energy had been directed to
preparing people for God's Kingdom by imposing on them strict Pharisaic
interpretation of the Law. Now all that seemed useless in the light of what
God himself had done for humanity through Jesus. Henceforth his one aim was
to proclaim the faith of Jesus as Lord everywhere.
Immediately
after his conversion Paul spent a period of solitude in Arabia. He then took
up residence in Damascus.
There presumably he established contact with the Christians he had
originally planned to harm and received from them information about Jesus
and his teaching as well as experience of Christian fellowship. Damascus was
the base for his first missionary work, but nothing is known of the effects
of his mission in the region. |
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After
three years his work in Damascus came to an abrupt end. Somehow he had
fallen foul of the ethnarch (governor) of the region of Nabataean Arabia.
The ethnarch set a watch on the gates of Damascus, but Paul escaped over the
wall in a basket and made his way to Jerusalem. There he met Peter,
the Apostle, and James,
the Lord's brother. This was an important meeting, for it established
Paul as a recognized Apostle alongside the founders of the church at
Jerusalem. The visit was brief, and Paul did not meet the Christian
communities in the vicinity. Most likely this was due to the danger of
reprisals from the Pharisees, who regarded Paul as a renegade. Therefore,
after only two weeks, he set out on a new mission to Cilicia and Syria, with
a base in his native city of Tarsus. About this mission, again, there is no
information.
At
some point Paul moved to Antioch, the capital of Syria, to assist Barnabas
in his successful mission there. The converts included a large number of Gentiles.
This eventually led to a serious crisis, in which Paul emerged as the
champion of the Gentiles. The controversy, which lasted several years,
stimulated Paul's most important contribution to Christian theology. His
stand on behalf of the Gentiles ensured that Christianity became not just a
Jewish sect but a universal religion. The point at issue was the
relationship between Jewish and Gentile Christians. Primitive Christianity
was a closely knit fellowship with the common meal and the Eucharist
(thanksgiving for the sacrificial death of Christ) at the heart of it. But
the Jewish purity rules made Jews reluctant to eat with Gentiles for fear of
transgressing the Law. Jesus had taught that purity of heart was more
important than attention to rules, but this did not lead his followers to
abandon them. But at Antioch the accession of Gentile converts created a
mixed congregation, in which the Jewish members were content to eat with the
Gentiles for the sake of Christian fellowship. In Jerusalem, however, since
the death of Stephen, the Christians had had to take great care not to
offend Jewish susceptibilities, and the prospect of making headway in the
mission there depended on their being seen as faithful to the Law. Thus
reports of the liberal attitude of the Christians in Antioch were bound to
be extremely damaging. Some of the Jerusalem Christians who were converted
Pharisees even held the view that Gentile converts should be required to
accept circumcision and the obligations of the Law.
Paul
states in Galatians that he did not revisit Jerusalem for 14 years, and,
when he finally did so, it was to deal with the problem of Gentile
membership of the church. This conflicts with the information in Acts, which
tells of a visit by Paul and Barnabas to bring relief during a famine at
some time in AD 47-49. Acts then describes a further visit to deal with the
Gentile issue. Most scholars today identify the latter visit with that
described in Galatians. This means that Luke, in writing Acts on the basis
of various sources, either presented twice what was actually one visit or
wrongly included Paul's name in the earlier relief visit.
Antioch
continued to be Paul's base for further pioneering work. Acts records three
itineraries, generally referred to as missionary journeys, spanning a number
of years. The second visit to Jerusalem probably took place at the end of
the first of these. |
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Acts
describes how Paul and Barnabas, accompanied by Barnabas' cousin John Mark,
set out for Cyprus, visiting Salamis and Paphos. They then crossed to the
mainland (modern Turkey), landing at Perga (near modern Murtana), but Mark
left them and returned to Jerusalem. They worked in Pisidia and Pamphylia,
which formed the southern part of the Roman province of Galatia, beginning
in Pisidian Antioch (near modern Yalvaç). Acts records a sermon that
Paul preached in the synagogue, which is a fine specimen of the presentation
of the faith to a Jewish audience in New Testament times. After further
stops at Iconium (modern Konya), Lystra (near modern Hatunsaray), and Derbe
(unidentified), they retraced their steps to Perga and the port of Attalia
(modern Antalya) and then sailed back to Antioch.
It
is unclear from this account how many of the new converts were drawn from
local Jewish communities and how many were Gentiles. The monotheism and
strong morality of the Jews always attracted to the synagogues Gentiles who
proved to be receptive to the Christian mission, especially as Paul did not
require circumcision and observance of the Law for Christian fellowship. In
some places the new congregations may have been entirely composed of
Gentiles.
At
this time Greek and Roman traditional religion was losing its hold, and a
deputation had come from Jerusalem to Antioch to insist that the Gentile
converts should be circumcised. This led to Paul's second visit to
Jerusalem. Paul says that he and Barnabas went "by revelation,"
perhaps meaning as a result of a message from a prophet, not in response to
a summons from Jerusalem as stated in Acts. The party from Antioch included Titus,
a Gentile whom Paul had taken into his mission team.
It
is almost impossible to harmonize the information in Acts 15 and Gal. 2, but
it is best to regard them as accounts of the same occasion. In Jerusalem
there seem to have been three main actions. First, Paul and Barnabas had a
private consultation with James, Peter, and John, in which they compared the
content of their mission preaching and established that they were in basic
agreement. This confirmed Paul's contention that the gospel message did not
require the circumcision of Gentile converts. A campaign by the hard-line
party to have Titus circumcised was firmly resisted. Second, a larger
conference was convened in order to inform all about the Gentile mission so
that they should have no doubt that the power of the Holy Spirit had been at
work. This resulted in the decision that the Gentile mission should continue
without pressure to Judaize converts. Paul would carry this on from Antioch,
while Peter would continue the mission among Jews from the base at
Jerusalem. Paul, however, was urged to bear in mind the precarious position
of the Jerusalem church. Third, a letter was sent to Antioch with minimum
rules for Gentile converts: to abstain from meat used in pagan sacrifices,
to use only kosher meat according to Jewish custom, and to observe Jewish
restrictions on sexual relationships. Later events show that the contents of
this letter were unknown to Paul, and it is conjectured that it belongs to a
later attempt to regulate relationships with the numerous Jewish Christian
congregations of Judaea and Syria after Paul had ceased to have close
contact with Antioch. (see also Index: Jerusalem, Council
of)
Paul's
view had been endorsed by Peter, who subsequently visited the church in
Antioch. Apparently he had no difficulty in sharing in the life of the mixed
congregation. Yet when some hard-liners came from Jerusalem, Peter felt
compelled to withdraw from meals with Gentile members. Other Jewish members
also yielded to the pressure, including even Barnabas. Paul, however, was
adamant in his conviction that this was fundamentally wrong. This crisis
could never have arisen if the letter from Jerusalem had already been sent;
it must have been due to differing views of the implications of what had
been agreed. Not only Paul but also Peter and the main body in Jerusalem had
assumed that the purity rules would not be allowed to interfere with table
fellowship in mixed congregations. But it is clear from the trouble over
Titus that the hard-liners would demand separation into two groups and then
claim that the unity of the congregation would require Judaizing of the
Gentile converts. Paul insisted on his own understanding of the agreement,
and the visitors left. |
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Paul
then planned to revisit the churches of south Galatia. Barnabas wished to
take Mark, but Paul refused in view of his previous failure. Barnabas and
Mark went to Cyprus, and nothing more is said about them in Acts. The
subsequent account is entirely concentrated on Paul, who took with him Silas,
also a Roman citizen (Roman name Silvanus). They went overland to Galatia.
At Lystra Paul took into his team Timothy,
a Gentile with a Jewish mother, who is mentioned with Silas in Paul's
letters. The claim of Acts that Paul circumcised him seems improbable in
view of the earlier decisions but is not impossible if the work was mainly
among Jewish communities.
Because
Paul hoped to establish the church in large centres of influence, he planned
to go to Ephesus, the principal city of the province of Asia and a port on
the Aegean coast. He was, however, prevented from doing so "by the Holy
Spirit" (perhaps another reference to Christian prophecy). Instead he
turned toward the large cities of Bithynia in the north. Possibly the
Gentile churches of north Galatia, to which the letter to the Galatians is
addressed, were founded on the way. Once more his plans were prevented, and
so he moved northwest to Troas. From there, in response to a vision, he
sailed to Macedonia and founded churches at Philippi, Thessalonica (modern
Thessaloníki, Greece), and Beroea. Philippi,
a Roman colony on the Via Egnatia, the major route across Greece, produced a
loyal group of Gentile converts, who frequently contributed funds to Paul in
later years. Acts tells how Paul and Silas were imprisoned there but
released when they revealed their Roman citizenship. At Thessalonica
and Beroea trouble from hostile Jews compelled Paul to move on to Athens.
After a short stay there, during which he is said to have addressed the
council of the Areopagus, he went on to Corinth. The speech, as given in
Acts, was an attempt to meet the needs of a philosophically trained
audience. No church was founded in Athens.
The
events of that time are reflected in I Thessalonians, perhaps the earliest
of Paul's letters, written after Silas and Timothy had joined Paul at
Corinth. The letter expressed his great anxiety for this newly founded
church in Thessalonica, which he had had to leave hurriedly, having been
accused of treason for proclaiming Christ as a rival emperor. It emerges
from the letter that he had taught the Gentile audience to turn "to God
from idols, to serve a living and true God, and to wait for his Son from
heaven, whom he raised from the dead, Jesus who delivers us from the wrath
to come" (1:9-10). This can be taken as a good example of Paul's basic
mission preaching. Timothy had reported that the converts were anxious about
their fate because some of them had already died. Paul explained that the
time of Christ's coming (Parousia) for judgment was unknown, but both living
and dead who had faith in him would be claimed by him as his own and saved
for the everlasting kingdom. II Thessalonians is regarded by some as a
supplementary letter, written shortly afterward, but there is doubt about
its authenticity. It contains details of the events that are to precede the
Parousia (unfortunately these details are by no means easy to understand).
(see also Index: Thessalonians,
letters of Paul to the)
Paul
was in low spirits when he reached Corinth after the failure at Athens. At
Corinth he met a Jewish couple, Aquila and Priscilla, tentmakers like
himself, who became his lifelong friends. They had recently come from Rome,
following an edict of the emperor Claudius expelling all Jews from the
capital. Possibly they had already become Christians in Rome. In Corinth
Paul at last was able to exercise a long and fruitful ministry in a great
trading centre. Acts records an incident in which Paul was brought before
the proconsul Gallio. This
is important for dating Paul's career because an inscription discovered at
Delphi proves that Gallio began his year of office in AD 51. Paul had
probably arrived in the previous year. When he left Corinth, Aquila and
Priscilla accompanied him to Ephesus, but he went on alone by sea to
Caesarea for Jerusalem and from there to Antioch. |
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Paul
had by then established churches in Asia Minor and Greece, with a major
centre at Corinth, and had begun work in the equally important Ephesus.
Then followed a period of consolidation. He went overland to Ephesus, which
became his base for the next three years. Acts gives little detail, but he
must have founded the churches at Colossae, Hierapolis, and Laodicea in the
Lycus Valley during this period. A group of followers of John the Baptist at
Ephesus is mentioned, and there were probably other Christian missionaries
working in the same region. References in his letters to fighting wild
beasts at Ephesus and to imprisonment show that he faced great hazards.
This
was the period of Paul's most important letters. His correspondence with
Corinth shows the grave difficulties that were liable to arise. I
Corinthians refers to a previous letter urging the Christians not to
associate with immoral persons, but it has not survived. In I Corinthians
Paul tackles a whole array of problems. Rival groups were claiming the
authority of different teachers (Peter, Apollos, and Paul himself). A case
of incest had gone unrebuked. Paul's teaching on freedom from the Law had
been twisted to justify licentiousness. There were problems of marriage and
divorce. The question of which foods a Gentile Christian might eat was
causing problems of conscience. There was disorderly conduct at the
Eucharist (Lord's Supper). In dealing with these matters Paul showed
knowledge of Jesus' teaching on marriage, and he gave the account of the
Last Supper in its oldest known form. A section on the gifts of the Holy
Spirit includes his famous chapter on love (chapter 13) and regulates the
practice of speaking with tongues. A long section on resurrection shows
that, while teaching that Christian life was already participation in the
risen Christ, Paul still thought that the Parousia was near and that the
full experience of eternal life lay beyond this event. (see also Index:
Corinthians, The Letter of Paul
to the)
Before
long, however, there were fresh troubles at Corinth. Intruders from another
church were trying to undermine Paul's authority. He dashed to Corinth but
failed to restore confidence. He returned to Ephesus and wrote a severe
letter (possibly partly preserved in II Cor. 10-13), which he regretted as
soon as Titus had left with it. Paul had intended to work at Troas but was
so anxious about Corinth that he went on to Macedonia instead in the hope of
meeting Titus on his return. Titus returned with the good news that the
severe letter had accomplished its purpose. With tremendous relief Paul
wrote II Corinthians (perhaps only chapters 1-9), which is full of the theme
of reconciliation: "God was in Christ reconciling the world to himself,
not counting their trespasses against them, and entrusting to us the message
of reconciliation" (5:19). Paul also gave further teaching on the
resurrection of the body in terms of renewal and transformation into the
state of glory.
Another
theme of II Corinthians is a collection for the poor church of Jerusalem, a
gift that Paul intended to symbolize the unity between the Jewish and
Gentile churches. Behind this project was the continuing problem of the
Judaizing party. This comes to the fore in Galatians, probably written
during this period. The letter is concerned with the attempt of some Jewish
Christians to persuade the Gentile Christians of Galatia to be circumcised
and keep the Law. Here Paul lays out his doctrine of justification by faith,
generally reckoned his most important contribution to Christian theology,
which was to reach its classic expression in Romans. (see also Index: Galatians, The
Letter of Paul to the, Romans,
Letter of Paul to the)
From
Macedonia Paul went to Corinth, and it was during his three months there
that he wrote to the Christians in Rome. The letter was written ostensibly
to seek their help in his plan to evangelize the far west (Spain is
mentioned) after taking the collection to Jerusalem. In fact, he clearly
felt the need to win their support for his position on the Judaizing issue,
and he presented the case at length. God's plan, he argued, is for universal
salvation. This is God's gift available through faith in the sacrificial
death of Christ. By itself the Law cannot bring salvation. It can show the
nature of human sin but is powerless to make people righteous. Paul's
opponents feared that without the Law the Gentile converts would be liable
to libertine behaviour (as had happened at Corinth). Paul replied that faith
in Christ opens the believer to the sanctifying power of the Holy Spirit.
Then the opponents complained that Paul's argument left no room for the
privileged position of the Jews as God's chosen people. Paul replied that,
though many Jews had failed to respond to the gospel, the success of the
mission to the Gentiles would prompt them to seek salvation at the end of
time, "and so all Israel [would] be saved" (Rom. 11:26). Then the
universe would reach the fulfillment of its purpose, and the final
transformation could begin. |
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At
the end of the letter Paul expressed his fear of danger from the Jews in
Jerusalem and even hinted that the church there might not feel able to
accept the collection. It seems that both these fears were realized. Acts
tells that Paul was accompanied by delegates from the Gentile churches but
does not mention the collection. This omission is best explained on the
assumption that Luke did not wish to say that the church in Jerusalem did
not dare to accept it. If so, Paul's hope that it would symbolize the
gathering of the Gentiles into the one family of God was disappointed. In
Jerusalem Paul was mistakenly accused of bringing one of the Gentile
delegates into the inner courts of the Temple, beyond the barrier excluding
Gentiles. He was arrested, partly to save his life from the mob, but given
good treatment on account of his Roman citizenship. When a plot against his
life came to light, he was removed to Caesarea, the Roman military
headquarters. The governor Felix kept him in prison to avoid antagonizing
the Jewish authorities. Two years later Felix's successor, Festus, wanted to
send him to Jerusalem for trial, but Paul refused to go and appealed to
Caesar.
The
journey to Rome began in late autumn, but a shipwreck delayed the travelers
for three months at Malta, so that they arrived in Rome in the spring of AD
60. There Paul was kept under house arrest for two years awaiting trial. At
this point the narrative of Acts
closes, and it is left to the reader to guess what happened. As long as the Pastoral
Letters were accepted as genuine, their evidence demanded the
hypothesis of acquittal, further work in Greece, Asia Minor, and even Crete,
before a second arrest, return to Rome, and sentence to death. Now that
these letters are recognized to be pseudonymous, there is no reason to
suppose that Paul was acquitted at all.
Paul
wrote several letters during captivity. These might have been written during
an earlier imprisonment in Ephesus or, perhaps, while he was at Caesarea,
but Rome seems most likely. Of the four captivity letters,
Philippians and Philemon are generally accepted as genuine;
Colossians and Ephesians are questioned. The letter to Philemon, a Christian
of Colossae, concerns his runaway slave whom Paul has converted in prison
and now sends back to him "no longer as a slave but more than a slave,
as a beloved brother" (verse 16). This letter, with its sensitive
handling of a delicate situation, is a gem among the Pauline writings.
Philippians is a serene acknowledgement of the generosity of the Christians
at Philippi. Colossians is concerned with trouble from false teachers at
Colossae, conjectured to be an unorthodox fringe sect of Judaism. In
response, Christ is presented as the true wisdom of God, embodying his whole
plan of salvation. Ephesians is an eloquent, perhaps overly rhetorical,
statement of the privilege of the Gentiles, who in Christ enjoy the status
of God's chosen people. Through his death Christ "has made us both one,
and has broken down the dividing wall of hostility" (2:14). (see also Index:
Philemon, The Letter of Paul to,
Colossians, The Letter of Paul to
the, Ephesians, Letter of
Paul to the) |
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Paul's
lasting monument is the worldwide Christian Church. Though he was not the
first to preach to the Gentiles, his resolute stand against the Judaizing
party was decisive for future progress. It can be justly claimed that it was
due to Paul more than anyone else that Christianity grew from being a small
sect within Judaism to become a world religion.
Paul's
influence continued after his death. The Pastoral Letters to Timothy and
Titus were written in Paul's name to promote fidelity to his teaching,
probably around the end of the 1st century. At the same time, Paul's
surviving letters were collected for general circulation. They quickly
became a standard of reference for Christian teaching. In particular,
theories of atonement (the reconciliation of mankind to God through the
sacrificial death of Christ) have always relied heavily on Paul. (see also Index:
Titus, The Letter of Paul to)
In
the Western (Latin) half of Christendom Paul had a profound effect upon the
history of the church through the writings of St. Augustine. The Pelagian
controversy concerning grace and free will turned on the interpretation of
passages in Paul's letter to the Romans. In arguing for the necessity of
divine grace for salvation, Augustine built on Paul's idea of
predestination, correctly interpreting Paul's idea as a reference to God's
predestined plan of universal salvation and as a concept that did not
necessarily conflict with the exercise of free will.
The
reformers of the 16th century were also deeply indebted to Paul. Martin
Luther seized on the doctrine of justification by faith and made the
distinction between faith and works the basis of his attack on the late
medieval church. John Calvin drew from Paul his concept of the church as the
company of the elect, using the idea of predestination and adding that
predestination to salvation belongs only to the elect. Thus Paul's teaching
came through the influence of Augustine to dominate the Reformation and its
legacy in the Lutheran and Calvinist churches of modern Protestantism. These
issues, however, never had the same prominence in the Eastern Orthodox
churches.
Modern
study of Paul has tried to reach behind these controversies and to see Paul
in his true context of the rise of Christianity. Once the basis of Paul's
thought in the context of Jewish concepts of his time is understood in the
light of modern scholarship, uncompromising predestinarian views of some of
Calvin's followers can be seen to be an overly rigid interpretation of
Paul's meaning. Attempts to derive Paul's ideas from Greek or Gnostic
influences have been largely abandoned. Paul stands out more clearly as a
Christian Jew, whose conversion experience convinced him that Christ was the
universal Lord under God, the agent and leader of God's kingdom. Paul thus
maintained that through Christ every barrier is broken down: "There is
neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free, there is neither
male nor female; for you are all one in Christ Jesus" (Gal. 3:28). |
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BIBLIOGRAPHY.
From the immense Pauline bibliography, which includes many commentaries on
the Acts and letters, only a representative selection can be chosen. GUSTAV
ADOLF DEISSMANN, St. Paul, trans.
from the German (1912); T.R. GLOVER, Paul of Tarsus (1925, reissued 1938); and JAMES S. STEWART, A
Man in Christ (1935, reissued 1975), are valuable biographical studies.
H.J. SCHOEPS, Paul (1961, reissued 1979; originally published in German, 1959), is
a modern Jewish view of Paul. MICHAEL GRANT, Saint Paul (1976, reissued 1982), is an introduction to his life and
his writings for the general reader. GÜNTHER BORNKAMM, Paul (1971; originally published in German, 1969); and FREDERICK F.
BRUCE, Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set
Free (1978, reprinted 1984), are a critical and a conservative account,
respectively, of both his life and thought. WAYNE A. MEEKS, The
First Urban Christians (1983), is a reinterpretation of Pauline thought
in light of new information on its social and political contexts. Other
specialized studies include WILLIAM M. RAMSAY, St.
Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen (1896, reissued 1982, with an
essay on the author), a valuable contribution to historical geography;
ROBERT JEWETT, A Chronology of Paul's
Life (1979); JOHANNES MUNCK, Paul and the Salvation of Mankind (1959; originally published in
German, 1954), dealing with various aspects of Paul's relationship with the
other Apostles; ALBERT SCHWEITZER, The
Mysticism of Paul the Apostle (1931, reissued 1968; originally published
in German, 1930); W.D. DAVIES, Paul
and Rabbinic Judaism, 4th ed. (1980); E.P. SANDERS, Paul and Palestinian Judaism (1977), and Paul, the Law, and the Jewish People (1983), providing a balanced
discussion of modern assessments of Paul's relationship to Judaism. D.E.H.
WHITELEY, The Theology of St. Paul,
2nd ed. (1974); and J. CHRISTIAAN BEKER, Paul
the Apostle (1980), are both thorough works on Paul's teaching.
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¹Ù¿ï
¹Ù¿ï ½ÅÇבּ¸ : ÀÌÇѼö, ÃѽŴëÇÐ ÃâÆÇºÎ, 1993
¹Ù¿ï½ÅÇÐ : D. H. ÈÀÌÆ²¸®, D. H. ÈÀÌÆ²¸®, ³ª´Ü, 1991
¹Ù¿ïÀÇ Á¾¸»·Ð : °ÔÇÒ´õ½º º¸½º, À̽±¸ ¿ª, ¿¥¸¶¿À,
1989
¹Ù¿ï½ÅÇÐ : F. F. ºê·ç½º, ±è¿øÅ ¿ª, ±âµ¶±³¹®¼¼±±³È¸,
1988
¹Ù¿ï°ú ¿¹¼ö : F. F. ºê·ç½º, À̱æ»ó ¿ª, ¾Æ°¡ÆäÃâÆÇ»ç,
1988
¹Ù¿ï¼°£(Á¾¿ï¸²½ÅÇÐÃѼ 3) : °íº´·Á Æí, Á¾·Î¼Àû,
1987
¹Ù¿ïÀÇ »ý¾Ö¿Í ¼½Å : ±èÈ£¿ë, ´ëÇѼº¼°øÈ¸, 1985
»çµµ ¹Ù¿ï : F. B. À̵ð¾î, ¼º¸¸² ¿ª,
±âµ¶±³¹®¼¼±±³È¸, 1983
¹Ù¿ïÀÇ ½ÅÇаú À±¸® : V. P. ÆÛ´Ï½Ã, ±è¿ë¿Á ¿ª,
´ëÇѱ⵶±³ÃâÆÇ»ç, 1982
¹Ù¿ï : ±èÁß¼®, ¿¡µ§¹®È»ç, 1981
¹Ù¿ï¿¬±¸»ç : °À¯Áß, ¿¹¼ö±³¹®¼¼±±³È¸, 1979
Paul and Rabbinic Judaism, 4th ed. : William D. Davies, William
D. Davies, 1981
Paul the Apostle : J. Christiaan Beker, 1980
The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle : Albert Schweitzer,
1931(reissued 1968)
Paul of Tarsus : T. R. Glover, 1925(reissued 1938)
St. Paul :, Gustav Adolf Deissmann (trans.), 1912
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