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Early life and career.
Thomas Muntzer was the son of a burgher in Stolberg in the Harz Mountains. Of
his childhood and youth very little is known. His name appears in the 1506
register of the University of Leipzig, and in 1512 he attended the University of
Frankfurt an der Oder, later earning the academic ranks of master of arts and
bachelor of theology. Muntzer became a linguistic specialist in Latin, Greek,
and Hebrew and an accomplished scholar of ancient and humanistic
literature--particularly the Old and New Testaments. He was an assistant teacher
in Halle (Saale) in 1513 and a clergyman as well as a teacher in Aschersleben in
1514 and 1515. In these capacities he represented the middle class in its
striving for church reforms. He initiated various secret alliances in order to
achieve the reforms.
From 1516 to 1517 Muntzer worked as a prior at Frohse monastery at
Aschersleben; in 1517-18 he taught at the Braunschweig Martineum (city secondary
school) until, in 1518, he was attracted to Martin
Luther and his ideas of reform. The designation Martinian was first
applied to Muntzer in 1519 after he spoke out against the Franciscan monastic
order, the Roman Catholic ecclesiastical
hierarchy, and the veneration of the saints. He early showed himself to be an
independent thinker. After occasional participation in debates between Luther
and the German theologian Johann Eck in Leipzig, he pursued intensive literary
studies at the monastery of Beuditz at Weissenfels (1519-20). There he
developed, especially under the influence of mysticism, his own view of the
Reformation. From an action-hungry conspirator in local burgher plots he became
a reformer who began to see the work inaugurated by Luther as a fundamental
change in both ecclesiastical and secular life, and therefore as a revolution.
He henceforth judged Luther's position by this criterion. (see also Christianity)
In Zwickau (1520-21) Muntzer prospered as a pastor in the socially tense
condition that existed between the upper classes and early miners' guilds. In
this work he sided with the common people, who seemed to him to be the executors
of the divine law and will on earth. More and more he found himself opposed to
Roman Catholic practices as well as to the reform concepts of the Lutherans.
He increasingly adopted the sectarian view that true authority lay in the inner
light given by God to his own, rather than in the Bible, a view
taught by Nikolaus Storch, a leader of a radical reform group known as the
"Zwickau prophets." Driven away from Zwickau, Muntzer sought on trips
to Saaz (Zatec) and Prague (1521) to win to his viewpoint the Taborites,
a Bohemian group that followed the teaching of Jan Hus, a 15th-century reformer.
Muntzer became fully aware of his opposition to Luther in 1522 at Nordhausen,
where, in a struggle against Luther's supporters, his theological differences of
opinion with them became more pronounced. For the first time it was the
Lutherans who were to effect his expulsion from a city.
Muntzer's reform movement
Although he began his religious revolt by following Luther's theological
doctrines, Muntzer soon went his own way. Believing that teachings came from the
spirit, he placed them in opposition to the Lutheran doctrines of justification
(justification by faith alone) and of the authority of Scripture (Scripture as
the exclusive source of divine truth). As an exponent of the supremacy of the
inner light of the Holy Spirit as against
the authority of Scriptures, Muntzer was said by Luther to have swallowed the
Holy Spirit, "feathers and all." (see also Bible)
The revolutionary aspect of Muntzer's theology lay in the link he made
between his concept of the inevitable conquest of the anti-Christian earthly
government and the thesis that the common people themselves, as the instruments
of God, would have to execute this change. He believed that the common people,
because of their lack of property and their unspoiled ignorance, would disclose
the will of God.
Muntzer arrived in Halle at the end of 1522. By his preaching in Glaucha, he
won numerous disciples. Here he may also have met his later wife, the nun
Ottilie von Gersen. From this union there were two children. Before Easter of
1523, Muntzer found employment as pastor of a Saxon community in Allstedt, near
the Mansfeld mining area. His most important religious, liturgical, and
political writings originated here. They included German Church Office,
German-Protestant Mass, Protestation or Defense . . . Regarding the Beginning of
the True Christian Faith and Baptism, Of Written Faith, and Precise
Exposure of False Belief. Here, too, he drafted a speech, "Motivation
for Defense," and delivered his "Princes' Sermon," in which he
unsuccessfully tried to mold those princes of Saxony who were inclined toward
Reformation principles into a league for resistance against what he called the
anti-Christian nobility and for the protection of his own preaching. Built upon
the idea of "Christian unification" and also as a self-defense
organization, the Allstedt alliance originated in 1524 and remained the centre
of his doctrine until the fall of 1524, when he left Allstedt.
The Peasants' Revolt.
In Muhlhausen he organized the working classes into a group called the
"Eternal Covenant of God" and lent a resolute character to the
inner-state movement (based on the rule of the elect who are known by their
inner experience of conversion) that had lasted since 1523. After another
expulsion he went to Nurnberg, where his main political writings were published.
He then went on to Hegau and Klettgau, the area where the Peasants' Revolt (an
abortive revolt in 1524-25 against the nobles over rising taxes, deflation, and
other grievances) was beginning, and stayed through the winter in Griessen. (see
also Index: Peasants' War)
His experience with the rising insurrection impelled him to go back to
Muhlhausen, which became the centre of the middle German revolt (after the
overthrow of the governing council and the formation of what the insurgents
called an "eternal council" in March 1525). Following Muntzer's
dogmatic program, the common people triumphed in April-May 1525 over the
religious and civil authorities. Cities and even some of the lesser nobility
joined the alliance. Muntzer and his followers lent determination and
consistency to the revolt. They were not, however, capable of overcoming the
local and regional narrow-mindedness of the people. In the Battle
of Frankenhausen, May 15, 1525, they were defeated by the superior
strength of the princes. (see also Index: revolution)
Out of egoistical, material, and provincial motives, Muntzer dismissed
resistance to his movement as a revolt against God. He believed that only if the
common people were to realize the law of God within themselves, and place group
interests above those of the individual, would they be capable of demonstrating
the will of God externally for the transformation of society. Muntzer's work was
mainly concerned with the religious and ethical training of the peasants, but in
expecting them to comprehend his concept of a future society without social and
legal distinctions, he demanded too much. During the rebellion, Muntzer tried to
relate the battle of the peasants, tradesmen, and commoners about immediate
concerns with that of the liberation of all Christendom and adapted himself to
the various groups' everyday concerns. The collapse of the revolt seemed to him
the judgment of God on the as yet unpurified people but not synonymous with the
defeat of his idea of a new society. Muntzer was taken prisoner and tortured and
on May 27, at the princes' camp at Muhlhausen, was tried and executed.
(see also Index: socialism)
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