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INTRODUCTION
Reformation
origins.
Developments
from the 17th century to the 19th.
Beliefs
and practices.
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Mennonite,
member of a Protestant church rising out of the Anabaptists,
a radical reform movement of the 16th century Reformation, and named for Menno
Simonsz. (q.v.), a Dutch priest who consolidated and institutionalized the
work initiated by the moderate Anabaptist leaders. Mennonites are located in
many countries of the world, with heaviest concentrations in the United States
and Canada.
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¸Þ³ëÆÄ(¡ª¡ª ÷ï, Mennonite), 16¼¼±â Á¾±³°³ÇõÀÇ ±ÞÁøÀû °³Çõ¿îµ¿ÀÎ Àç¼¼·ÊÆÄ¿¡¼
¹ß»ýÇÑ ÇÁ·ÎÅ×½ºÅºÆ® ±³È¸. ¸Þ³ëÆÄ¶ó´Â À̸§Àº ¿Â°ÇÇÑ Àç¼¼·ÊÆÄ ÁöµµÀÚµéÀÌ ½ÃÀÛÇÑ
ÀÏÀ» °ÈÇϰí Á¶Á÷ÈÇÑ ³×´ú¶õµå »çÁ¦ ¸Þ³ë
½Ã¸ó½ºÀÇ À̸§¿¡¼ À¯·¡Çß´Ù. ¿À´Ã³¯
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ij³ª´Ù¿¡ ÁýÁߵǾî ÀÖ´Ù.
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Among the various Anabaptist groups, the Mennonites trace their origin
particularly to the so-called Swiss Brethren, who formed their first
congregation on January 21, 1525, in the face of imminent persecution for their
nonconformity to the demands of the state church led by the Reformation
theologian Huldrych Zwingli. Though these demands centred on infant Baptism,
which Anabaptist leaders Conrad Grebel, Felix Manz, and others questioned on the
basis of biblical studies, the real issue was the nature of the church.
Christ, according to their
view, is Lord of the church. Only those who submit to that lordship can be true
members of his body. Furthermore, the body of Christ receives its guidance from
Christ himself through the Scriptures and the Holy
Spirit, not from or through the civil magistracy. Persecution soon
scattered the Swiss Brethren across Europe; their doctrinal views found quick
response among many people, and for a time the movement grew.
Though Mennonites are the direct descendents of the Anabaptists of the
16th century, the two movements are not identical. Menno
Simons, a Dutch priest who joined the Anabaptist movement in 1536,
gathered the scattered Anabaptists of northern Europe into vital congregations
that were soon called by his name. These congregations led by Menno Simons were
similar to another Anabaptist-related group organized in Strasbourg under
Melchior Hofmann in 1530. Initially, Menno Simons was not directly influenced by
the Swiss Brethren; but with the death of the first Swiss and south German
Anabaptist leaders soon after the defeat of the peasant forces led by some
radical revolutionary Anabaptists--such as Thomas Müntzer (c.
1490-1525)--in the Peasants' War (1525), Simons began to consolidate and
institutionalize the work that the moderate Anabaptist leaders of Europe had
begun. He represents a second generation of leaders in which the emerging
tradition determined basic faith and doctrine.
Another Anabaptist movement flourished in central Germany under the
leadership of Hans Hut (died 1527), Hans Denk (c. 1500-27), and especially Pilgram Marpeck (c. 1492-1556), a major early lay theologian. Still another movement
came to be known as the Hutterian
Brethren because of the coordinating leadership of Jakob Hutter (died
1536). The Hutterites were soon known for their communal living and for an
intense missionary zeal that continued into the 17th century, after all other
Anabaptist groups had found relative physical security by withdrawing
geographically and socially from the mainstream of European life.
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Mennonites found political freedom first in The
Netherlands, after their last martyr died there in 1574. Before that
date, however, many had emigrated from there to the Vistula River area in what
is now northern Poland, where
their communities became large and flourishing. By 1700 there were 160,000
baptized members in the Mennonite churches of The Netherlands. Because many of
the professions were legally closed to them, they turned to business and in the
process became wealthy and urbanized. In matters of faith, they followed the Enlightenment,
a 17th- and 18th-century intellectual movement that placed its hope for human
betterment on the use of right reason. They became well known as artists,
writers, and patrons of social programs; but membership declined to about 15,300
in 1837.
Persecutions that continued in Switzerland
into the 18th century drove many Mennonites to southern Germany,
Alsace, The Netherlands, and
the United States. A major
schism occurred (1693-97) when the Swiss Mennonite bishop left the Mennonites to
form the Amish Church in an
attempt to preserve biblical discipline among the membership. From the 17th to
the 20th centuries, most Mennonites in Switzerland, southern Germany, and Alsace
lived in semiclosed rural communities with a simple agrarian economy.
Religiously, they were influenced by Pietism,
a Lutheran-based movement that emphasized personal religious experience and
reform. (see also Index: religious
community)
In 1788 the first of a long stream of Mennonites left the Vistula Delta
of northern Poland (Prussia) to settle in the Ukraine,
where they acquired land and escaped military conscription. By 1835 about 1,600
families had settled in 72 villages with landholdings amounting to about 500,000
acres. In 1860 a small group within the Mennonite community in Russia underwent a religious awakening and
demanded stricter discipline for church members. They founded the Mennonite
Brethren Church, some of whose members joined an exodus of Mennonites from
Russia in the 1870s that was provoked by the loss of their exemption from
military service. Many of these immigrants settled in the Middle West of the
United States and in Manitoba, Can.
By World War I the Mennonite settlements in Russia included more than
120,000 members living in autonomous communities where religious, educational,
social, economic, and even political affairs were under their own control. All
Mennonite communities in Russia
were either destroyed during World War II or dissolved by the Soviets soon after
1945. Mennonites today live scattered among the Russian population.
Beginning in 1663, Mennonites emigrated to North America to preserve the
faith of their fathers, to seek economic opportunity and adventure, and
especially to escape European militarism. Until the late 19th century, most
Mennonites in North America lived in rural communities and engaged successfully
in farming. They retained their German language, partly as a religious symbol
and partly as insulation against their environment. Their main concern was to be
left alone to worship God according to their conscience and tradition. In 1775
they addressed a statement to the Pennsylvania Assembly that read:
It is our principle to feed the hungry
and give the thirsty drink; we have dedicated ourselves to serve all men in
everything that can be helpful to the preservation of men's lives, but we find
no freedom in giving, or doing, or assisting in anything by which men's lives
are destroyed or hurt.
In 1783 Mennonites in Lancaster County were accused of treason for
feeding destitute British soldiers. During the U.S. Civil War, rather than
fight, some hired substitutes or paid an exemption fee of $300 in the North and
$500 in the South. Those who fought in the armed forces were usually
excommunicated for doing so.
After 1850 the transition from the German language to English, the
adoption of such institutions and practices as Sunday schools and evangelistic
services, together with problems associated with the acculturation process, led
to a number of divisions among the Mennonites; some branches were also imported
from Europe. The largest single body is the (Old) Mennonite Church; following
are the General Conference Mennonite Church, the Mennonite Brethren, and the Old
Order Amish. Most extreme are the Hutterian Brethren, who still live communally
and practice community of goods; this relatively small group is concentrated in
the upper Great Plains region of North America.
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Mennonite Church)À̸ç, ±× ´ÙÀ½ÀÌ '¸Þ³ëÆÄ ±³È¸ ÃÑȸ'(General
Conference Mennonite Church), '¸Þ³ëÆÄ ÇüÁ¦´Ü'(Mennonite Brethren), '¿¾
¾Ï¸¸ÆÄ'(Old Order Amish)ÀÌ´Ù. °¡Àå öÀúÇÑ Áý´ÜÀº 'ÈÄÅÍÆÄ
ÇüÁ¦¾Ï¸¸'(Hutterian Brethren)À¸·Î¼ À̵éÀº ¾ÆÁ÷µµ °øµ¿Ã¼¸¦
ÀÌ·ç°í Àç»êÀ» °øÀ¯ÇÏ¸ç »ì¾Æ°£´Ù. ºñ±³Àû ÀÛÀº ÀÌ Áý´ÜÀº
ºÏ¾Æ¸Þ¸®Ä« ´ëÆò¿ø ºÏºÎ¿¡ ÁýÁßÇØ ÀÖ´Ù.
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Anabaptist and Mennonite thought has been characterized by a separation
between religion and the world. Under the impact of severe persecution in the
16th century, Anabaptism was driven to a strategy of withdrawal from society in
its attempt to survive, a strategy that became central in Mennonite theology.
Consequently, most Mennonites have possessed a strong cultural cohesion that
they maintained externally by withdrawal and internally by rigorous group
discipline. This isolation encouraged the sectarian virtues of frugality, hard
work, piety, and mutual helpfulness but frequently also led to schism. By the
mid-20th century, however, Mennonites were deeply involved in the social,
educational, and economic world around them, an involvement that led to
revolutionary changes in their life and thought. It also led to a new search for
identity as a distinct group in the modern world, through a study of their
denominational history, sociological analysis, and theological interaction with
other groups.
Mennonites are trinitarian (believing in the doctrine of the Trinity--i.e.,
Father, Son, and Holy Spirit), affirm the Scriptures (especially the New
Testament and the teachings of Jesus) as their final authority for faith and
life, and appeal to the pattern of the early church as their congregational
model. They stress the importance of Baptism
on confession of faith and a symbolic understanding of the Lord's
Supper. Some practice foot
washing, a practice based on an act of Jesus with his disciples. The
doctrines of nonconformity to the world, nonswearing of oaths, nonresistance in
lieu of military service, and church discipline are generally affirmed but not
practiced universally. (see also Index:
Bible, pacifism)
Mennonite worship
services are sermon-centred. A simple, almost austere, liturgy surrounds the
Gospel proclamation. In the late 20th century, however, there were many signs of
experiment in worship similar to those found in other denominations.
Most Mennonite congregations are joined together into numerous
conferences, seven of which are in North America. The Amish, Hutterian Brethren,
and some conservative Mennonites do not form conferences. Since 1925 there has
been a Mennonite World Conference that meets every five years for fellowship,
study, and inspiration but does not make decisions binding on its member bodies.
The desire to express positively the ethic of love and nonresistance has
historically given Mennonites a deep social concern. An emergency relief
committee for national and international aid, founded by the Dutch Mennonites in
1725, is still active. In 1920 North American Mennonites founded the Mennonite
Central Committee (MCC) for the same purpose, initially to relieve famine in
Russia. Mennonite migrations continued during the 20th century, primarily from
Russia to North and South America--to Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, Bolivia,
Mexico, and British Honduras. Mennonite migrants and missionaries
from North America and Europe planted numerous churches in Latin America,
Africa, Oceania, and India and other parts of Asia.
In the 20th century, the Mennonites of North America gave new emphasis
to higher education, especially by supporting their own colleges and seminaries,
while continuing to maintain secondary and Bible schools. New interest in the
faith of early Anabaptists was fostered by the scholarly work of both Mennonite
and non-Mennonite historians. This activity not only offered new insights for
the renewing of church life but accented the disparity between the 16th-century
Anabaptist ideals and present Mennonite beliefs and practices. A rediscovery of
their history also gave new meaning to urban social relationships; witness,
service, discipleship, and evangelism became household words and shaped
Mennonite identity. Instead of withdrawal, they found in witness and service a
new way of relating to the world. See also Amish ;
Hutterite
.
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The
Mennonite Encyclopedia,
4 vol. (1955-59), is the standard reference work in English.
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