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Religion


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Mennonite

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INTRODUCTION

Reformation origins.

Developments from the 17th century to the 19th.

Beliefs and practices.

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17~19¼¼±âÀÇ ¹ßÀü.

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INTRODUCTION

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Mennonite, member of a Protestant church rising out of the Anabaptists, a radical reform movement of the 16th century Reformation, and named for Menno Simonsz. (q.v.), a Dutch priest who consolidated and institutionalized the work initiated by the moderate Anabaptist leaders. Mennonites are located in many countries of the world, with heaviest concentrations in the United States and Canada.

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Reformation origins.

Among the various Anabaptist groups, the Mennonites trace their origin particularly to the so-called Swiss Brethren, who formed their first congregation on January 21, 1525, in the face of imminent persecution for their nonconformity to the demands of the state church led by the Reformation theologian Huldrych Zwingli. Though these demands centred on infant Baptism, which Anabaptist leaders Conrad Grebel, Felix Manz, and others questioned on the basis of biblical studies, the real issue was the nature of the church. Christ, according to their view, is Lord of the church. Only those who submit to that lordship can be true members of his body. Furthermore, the body of Christ receives its guidance from Christ himself through the Scriptures and the Holy Spirit, not from or through the civil magistracy. Persecution soon scattered the Swiss Brethren across Europe; their doctrinal views found quick response among many people, and for a time the movement grew.

Though Mennonites are the direct descendents of the Anabaptists of the 16th century, the two movements are not identical. Menno Simons, a Dutch priest who joined the Anabaptist movement in 1536, gathered the scattered Anabaptists of northern Europe into vital congregations that were soon called by his name. These congregations led by Menno Simons were similar to another Anabaptist-related group organized in Strasbourg under Melchior Hofmann in 1530. Initially, Menno Simons was not directly influenced by the Swiss Brethren; but with the death of the first Swiss and south German Anabaptist leaders soon after the defeat of the peasant forces led by some radical revolutionary Anabaptists--such as Thomas Müntzer (c. 1490-1525)--in the Peasants' War (1525), Simons began to consolidate and institutionalize the work that the moderate Anabaptist leaders of Europe had begun. He represents a second generation of leaders in which the emerging tradition determined basic faith and doctrine.

Another Anabaptist movement flourished in central Germany under the leadership of Hans Hut (died 1527), Hans Denk (c. 1500-27), and especially Pilgram Marpeck (c. 1492-1556), a major early lay theologian. Still another movement came to be known as the Hutterian Brethren because of the coordinating leadership of Jakob Hutter (died 1536). The Hutterites were soon known for their communal living and for an intense missionary zeal that continued into the 17th century, after all other Anabaptist groups had found relative physical security by withdrawing geographically and socially from the mainstream of European life.

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Developments from the 17th century to the 19th.

Mennonites found political freedom first in The Netherlands, after their last martyr died there in 1574. Before that date, however, many had emigrated from there to the Vistula River area in what is now northern Poland, where their communities became large and flourishing. By 1700 there were 160,000 baptized members in the Mennonite churches of The Netherlands. Because many of the professions were legally closed to them, they turned to business and in the process became wealthy and urbanized. In matters of faith, they followed the Enlightenment, a 17th- and 18th-century intellectual movement that placed its hope for human betterment on the use of right reason. They became well known as artists, writers, and patrons of social programs; but membership declined to about 15,300 in 1837.

Persecutions that continued in Switzerland into the 18th century drove many Mennonites to southern Germany, Alsace, The Netherlands, and the United States. A major schism occurred (1693-97) when the Swiss Mennonite bishop left the Mennonites to form the Amish Church in an attempt to preserve biblical discipline among the membership. From the 17th to the 20th centuries, most Mennonites in Switzerland, southern Germany, and Alsace lived in semiclosed rural communities with a simple agrarian economy. Religiously, they were influenced by Pietism, a Lutheran-based movement that emphasized personal religious experience and reform. (see also Index: religious community)

In 1788 the first of a long stream of Mennonites left the Vistula Delta of northern Poland (Prussia) to settle in the Ukraine, where they acquired land and escaped military conscription. By 1835 about 1,600 families had settled in 72 villages with landholdings amounting to about 500,000 acres. In 1860 a small group within the Mennonite community in Russia underwent a religious awakening and demanded stricter discipline for church members. They founded the Mennonite Brethren Church, some of whose members joined an exodus of Mennonites from Russia in the 1870s that was provoked by the loss of their exemption from military service. Many of these immigrants settled in the Middle West of the United States and in Manitoba, Can.

By World War I the Mennonite settlements in Russia included more than 120,000 members living in autonomous communities where religious, educational, social, economic, and even political affairs were under their own control. All Mennonite communities in Russia were either destroyed during World War II or dissolved by the Soviets soon after 1945. Mennonites today live scattered among the Russian population.

Beginning in 1663, Mennonites emigrated to North America to preserve the faith of their fathers, to seek economic opportunity and adventure, and especially to escape European militarism. Until the late 19th century, most Mennonites in North America lived in rural communities and engaged successfully in farming. They retained their German language, partly as a religious symbol and partly as insulation against their environment. Their main concern was to be left alone to worship God according to their conscience and tradition. In 1775 they addressed a statement to the Pennsylvania Assembly that read:

It is our principle to feed the hungry and give the thirsty drink; we have dedicated ourselves to serve all men in everything that can be helpful to the preservation of men's lives, but we find no freedom in giving, or doing, or assisting in anything by which men's lives are destroyed or hurt.

In 1783 Mennonites in Lancaster County were accused of treason for feeding destitute British soldiers. During the U.S. Civil War, rather than fight, some hired substitutes or paid an exemption fee of $300 in the North and $500 in the South. Those who fought in the armed forces were usually excommunicated for doing so.

After 1850 the transition from the German language to English, the adoption of such institutions and practices as Sunday schools and evangelistic services, together with problems associated with the acculturation process, led to a number of divisions among the Mennonites; some branches were also imported from Europe. The largest single body is the (Old) Mennonite Church; following are the General Conference Mennonite Church, the Mennonite Brethren, and the Old Order Amish. Most extreme are the Hutterian Brethren, who still live communally and practice community of goods; this relatively small group is concentrated in the upper Great Plains region of North America.

17~19¼¼±âÀÇ ¹ßÀü

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1783³â ¿µ±¹ ·©Ä¿½ºÅÍ ÁÖÀÇ ¸Þ³ëÆÄ±³µµµéÀº ±¾ÁÖ¸° ¿µ±¹ ±ºÀε鿡°Ô ¸ÔÀ» °ÍÀ» ÁÖ¾ú´Ù´Â ÀÌÀ¯·Î ¹Ý¿ªÁË·Î °í¼Ò´çÇϱ⵵ Çß´Ù. ³²ºÏÀüÀï µ¿¾È ¸Þ³ëÆÄ±³µµµéÀº ´Ù¸¥ »ç¶÷À» ´ë¸®ÀÔ´ë½ÃŰ°Å³ª ºÏºÎÀÇ °æ¿ì 300´Þ·¯, ³²ºÎÀÇ °æ¿ì 500´Þ·¯¸¦ ³»°í º´¿ªÀ» ¸éÁ¦¹Þ¾Ò´Ù. ±×·¯³ª ÀÔ´ëÇØ ÀüÀï¿¡ °¡´ãÇÑ ±³µµµéÀº ´ë°³ Ãâ±³´çÇß´Ù. 1850³â ÀÌÈÄ ¸Þ³ëÆÄ´Â ¾ð¾î¸¦ µ¶ÀϾ¼­ ¿µ¾î·Î ¹Ù²Ù°í, ÁÖÀÏÇб³¿Í º¹À½ÁÖÀÇ ¿¹¹è °°Àº »õ·Î¿î Á¦µµ¿Í ÀǽÄÀ» äÅÃÇߴµ¥, ÀÌ¿Í °°Àº ¿ÜºÎ ¹®È­¸¦ ¹Þ¾ÆµéÀÌ´Â °úÁ¤¿¡¼­ ¿©·¯ Â÷·Ê ºÐ¿­ÀÌ ÀϾ´Ù. ¿©±â¿¡´Â À¯·´¿¡¼­ °Ç³Ê¿Â ¸î¸î ºÐÆÄµéµµ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ÀÌ ¿©·¯ ºÐ ÆÄ °¡¿îµ¥ °¡Àå Å« Áý´ÜÀº '¿¾ ¸Þ³ëÆÄ ±³È¸'(Old Mennonite Church)À̸ç, ±× ´ÙÀ½ÀÌ '¸Þ³ëÆÄ ±³È¸ ÃÑȸ'(General Conference Mennonite Church), '¸Þ³ëÆÄ ÇüÁ¦´Ü'(Mennonite Brethren), '¿¾ ¾Ï¸¸ÆÄ'(Old Order Amish)ÀÌ´Ù. °¡Àå öÀúÇÑ Áý´ÜÀº 'ÈÄÅÍÆÄ ÇüÁ¦¾Ï¸¸'(Hutterian Brethren)À¸·Î¼­ À̵éÀº ¾ÆÁ÷µµ °øµ¿Ã¼¸¦ ÀÌ·ç°í Àç»êÀ» °øÀ¯ÇÏ¸ç »ì¾Æ°£´Ù. ºñ±³Àû ÀÛÀº ÀÌ Áý´ÜÀº ºÏ¾Æ¸Þ¸®Ä« ´ëÆò¿ø ºÏºÎ¿¡ ÁýÁßÇØ ÀÖ´Ù.

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Beliefs and practices.

Anabaptist and Mennonite thought has been characterized by a separation between religion and the world. Under the impact of severe persecution in the 16th century, Anabaptism was driven to a strategy of withdrawal from society in its attempt to survive, a strategy that became central in Mennonite theology. Consequently, most Mennonites have possessed a strong cultural cohesion that they maintained externally by withdrawal and internally by rigorous group discipline. This isolation encouraged the sectarian virtues of frugality, hard work, piety, and mutual helpfulness but frequently also led to schism. By the mid-20th century, however, Mennonites were deeply involved in the social, educational, and economic world around them, an involvement that led to revolutionary changes in their life and thought. It also led to a new search for identity as a distinct group in the modern world, through a study of their denominational history, sociological analysis, and theological interaction with other groups.

Mennonites are trinitarian (believing in the doctrine of the Trinity--i.e., Father, Son, and Holy Spirit), affirm the Scriptures (especially the New Testament and the teachings of Jesus) as their final authority for faith and life, and appeal to the pattern of the early church as their congregational model. They stress the importance of Baptism on confession of faith and a symbolic understanding of the Lord's Supper. Some practice foot washing, a practice based on an act of Jesus with his disciples. The doctrines of nonconformity to the world, nonswearing of oaths, nonresistance in lieu of military service, and church discipline are generally affirmed but not practiced universally. (see also Index: Bible, pacifism)

Mennonite worship services are sermon-centred. A simple, almost austere, liturgy surrounds the Gospel proclamation. In the late 20th century, however, there were many signs of experiment in worship similar to those found in other denominations.

Most Mennonite congregations are joined together into numerous conferences, seven of which are in North America. The Amish, Hutterian Brethren, and some conservative Mennonites do not form conferences. Since 1925 there has been a Mennonite World Conference that meets every five years for fellowship, study, and inspiration but does not make decisions binding on its member bodies.

The desire to express positively the ethic of love and nonresistance has historically given Mennonites a deep social concern. An emergency relief committee for national and international aid, founded by the Dutch Mennonites in 1725, is still active. In 1920 North American Mennonites founded the Mennonite Central Committee (MCC) for the same purpose, initially to relieve famine in Russia. Mennonite migrations continued during the 20th century, primarily from Russia to North and South America--to Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, Bolivia, Mexico, and British Honduras. Mennonite migrants and missionaries from North America and Europe planted numerous churches in Latin America, Africa, Oceania, and India and other parts of Asia.

In the 20th century, the Mennonites of North America gave new emphasis to higher education, especially by supporting their own colleges and seminaries, while continuing to maintain secondary and Bible schools. New interest in the faith of early Anabaptists was fostered by the scholarly work of both Mennonite and non-Mennonite historians. This activity not only offered new insights for the renewing of church life but accented the disparity between the 16th-century Anabaptist ideals and present Mennonite beliefs and practices. A rediscovery of their history also gave new meaning to urban social relationships; witness, service, discipleship, and evangelism became household words and shaped Mennonite identity. Instead of withdrawal, they found in witness and service a new way of relating to the world. See also Amish ; Hutterite .

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BIBLIOGRAPHY.

The Mennonite Encyclopedia, 4 vol. (1955-59), is the standard reference work in English.


Mennonite Central Committee ]


Ȩ ] À§·Î ] [ ¸Þ³ëÆÄ ] ÈÄÅÍÆÄ ] ÇüÁ¦´Ü ] ¾Ï¸¸ÆÄ ] Thomas Muntzer ] Balthasar Hubmaier ] ¸Þ³ë ½Ã¸ó½º ] È£ÇÁ¸¸ ] ½Å¾ÓºÎÈï¿îµ¿ ] ´ë°¢¼º ¿îµ¿ ]


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