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Walt Whitman was born into a family that
settled in North America in the first half of the 17th century. His ancestry was
typical of the region: his mother, Louisa Van Velsor, was Dutch, and his father,
Walter Whitman, was of English descent. They were simple farm people, with
little formal education. The Whitman family had at one time owned a large tract
of land, but it was so diminished by the time Walt was born that his father had
taken up carpentering, though the family still lived on a small section of the
ancestral estate. In 1823 Walter Whitman, Sr., moved his growing family to
Brooklyn, which was enjoying a boom. There he speculated in real estate and
built cheap houses for artisans, but he was a poor manager and had difficulty in
providing for his family, which increased to nine children.
Walt, the second child, attended public
school in Brooklyn, began working at the age of 12, and learned the printing
trade. He was employed as a printer in Brooklyn and New York City, taught in
country schools on Long Island, and became a journalist. At the age of 23 he
edited a daily newspaper in New York, and in 1846 he became editor of the Brooklyn
Daily Eagle, a fairly important newspaper of the time. Discharged from the Eagle
early in 1848 because of his support for the Free Soil faction of the Democratic
Party, he went to New Orleans, La., where he worked for three months on the Crescent
before returning to New York via the Mississippi River and the Great Lakes.
After another abortive attempt at Free Soil journalism, he built houses and
dabbled in real estate in New York from about 1850 until 1855.
Whitman had spent a great deal of his 36
years walking and observing in New York City and Long Island. He had visited the
theatre frequently and seen many plays of William Shakespeare, and he had
developed a strong love of music, especially opera. During these years he had
also read extensively at home and in the New York libraries, and he began
experimenting with a new style of poetry. While a schoolteacher, printer, and
journalist he had published sentimental stories and poems in newspapers and
popular magazines, but they showed almost no literary promise.
By the spring of 1855 Whitman had enough
poems in his new style for a thin volume. Unable to find a publisher, he sold a
house and printed the first edition of Leaves
of Grass at his own expense. No publisher's name, no author's name appeared
on the first edition in 1855. But the cover had a portrait of Walt Whitman,
"broad shouldered, rouge fleshed, Bacchus-browed, bearded like a
satyr." Though little appreciated upon its appearance, Leaves
of Grass was warmly praised by the poet and essayist Ralph
Waldo Emerson, who wrote to Whitman on receiving the poems that it was
"the most extraordinary piece of wit and wisdom" America had yet
contributed.
Whitman continued practicing his new
style of writing in his private notebooks, and in 1856 the second edition of Leaves
of Grass appeared. This collection contained revisions of the poems of the
first edition and a new one, the "Sun-down Poem" (later to become
"Crossing Brooklyn Ferry"). The second edition was also a financial
failure, and once again Whitman edited a daily newspaper, the Brooklyn
Times, but was unemployed by the summer of 1859. In 1860 a Boston publisher
brought out the third edition of Leaves of
Grass, greatly enlarged and rearranged, but the outbreak of the American
Civil War bankrupted the firm. The 1860 volume contained the "Calamus"
poems, which record a personal crisis of some intensity in Whitman's life, an
apparent homosexual love affair (whether imagined or real is unknown), and
"Premonition" (later entitled "Starting from Paumanok"),
which records the violent emotions that often drained the poet's strength.
"A Word out of the Sea" (later entitled "Out of the Cradle
Endlessly Rocking") evoked some sombre feelings, as did "As I Ebb'd
with the Ocean of Life." "Chants Democratic," "Enfans
d'Adam," "Messenger Leaves," and "Thoughts" were more
in the poet's earlier vein.
After the outbreak of the Civil War in
1861, Whitman's brother was wounded at Fredericksburg, and Whitman went there in
1862, staying some time in the camp, then taking a temporary post in the
paymaster's office in Washington. He spent his spare time visiting wounded and
dying soldiers in the Washington hospitals, spending his scanty salary on small
gifts for Confederate and Unionist soldiers alike and offering his usual
"cheer and magnetism" to try to alleviate some of the mental
depression and bodily suffering he saw in the wards. (see also American Civil War)
In January 1865 he became a clerk in the
Department of the Interior; in May he was promoted but in June was dismissed
because the secretary of the Interior thought that Leaves of Grass was indecent. Whitman then obtained a post in the
attorney general's office, largely through the efforts of his friend, the
journalist William O'Connor, who wrote a vindication of Whitman in The
Good Gray Poet (published in 1866), which aroused sympathy for the victim of
injustice.
In May 1865 a collection of war poems
entitled Drum Taps showed Whitman's
readers a new kind of poetry, moving from the oratorical excitement with which
he had greeted the falling-in and arming of the young men at the beginning of
the Civil War to a disturbing awareness of what war really meant. "Beat!
Beat! Drums!" echoed the bitterness of the Battle of Bull Run, and
"Vigil Strange I Kept on the Field One Night" had a new awareness of
suffering, no less effective for its quietly plangent quality. The Sequel
to Drum Taps, published in the autumn of 1865, contained his great elegy on
President Abraham Lincoln, "When Lilacs Last in
the Dooryard Bloom'd." His horror at the death of democracy's first
"great martyr chief " was matched by his revulsion from the
barbarities of war. Whitman's prose descriptions of the Civil War, published
later in Specimen Days & Collect (1882-83), are no less effective in
their direct, moving simplicity.
The fourth edition of Leaves of Grass, published in 1867, contained
much revision and rearrangement. Apart from the poems collected in Drum Taps,
it contained eight new poems, and some poems had been omitted. In the late 1860s
Whitman's work began to receive greater recognition. O'Connor's The Good Gray Poet
and John Burroughs' Notes on Walt Whitman as Poet
and Person (1867) were followed in 1868 by an expurgated English edition of
Whitman's poems prepared by William Michael Rossetti, the English man of
letters. During the remainder of his life Whitman received much encouragement
from leading writers in England.
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Whitman was ill in 1872, probably as a result of long-experienced emotional
strains related to his sexual ambiguity; in January 1873 his first stroke left
him partly paralyzed. By May he had recovered sufficiently to travel to his
brother's home in Camden, N.J., where his mother was dying. Her subsequent death
he called "the great cloud" of his life. He thereafter lived with his
brother in Camden, and his post in the attorney general's office was terminated
in 1874.
Whitman's health recovered sufficiently by 1879 for him to make a visit to
the West. In 1881 James R. Osgood published a second Boston edition of Leaves of Grass, and
the Society for the Suppression of Vice claimed it to be immoral. Because of a
threatened prosecution, Osgood gave the plates to Whitman, who, after he had
published an author's edition, found a new publisher, Rees Welsh of
Philadelphia, who was shortly succeeded by David McKay. Leaves of Grass had
now reached the form in which it was henceforth to be published. Newspaper
publicity had created interest in the book, and it sold better than any previous
edition. As a result, Whitman was able to buy a modest little cottage in Camden,
where he spent the rest of his life. He had many new friends, among them Horace
Traubel, who recorded his talk and wrote his biography. The Complete Poems and Prose
was published in 1888, along with the eighth edition of Leaves
of Grass. The ninth, or "authorized," edition appeared in 1892,
the year of Whitman's death.
Walt Whitman is known primarily for Leaves
of Grass, though his prose volume Specimen
Days contains some fine realistic descriptions of Civil War scenes. But Leaves of Grass is actually more than one book. During Whitman's
lifetime it went through nine editions, each with its own distinct virtues and
faults. Whitman compared the finished book to a cathedral long under
construction, and on another occasion to a tree, with its cumulative rings of
growth. Both metaphors are misleading, however, because he did not construct his
book unit by unit or by successive layers but constantly altered titles,
diction, and even motifs and shifted poems--omitting, adding, separating, and
combining. Beginning with the third edition (1860), he grouped the poems under
such titles as "Chants Democratic," "Enfans d'Adam" (later
"Children of Adam"), "Calamus," "Poems of Joy,"
and "Sea-Drift." Some of his later group titles were highly
connotative, such as "Birds of Passage," "By the Roadside,"
"Autumn Rivulets," "From Noon to Starry Night," and
"Songs of Parting," suggesting a life allegory. But the poems were not
arranged in order of composition, either within a particular group or from one
group to another. After 1881 Whitman made no further shifts in groups or
revisions of poems within the groups, merely adding the poems of "Sands at
Seventy" and "Good-Bye My Fancy."
Under the influence of the Romantic
movement in literature and art, Whitman held the theory that the chief function
of the poet was to express his own personality in his verse. The first edition
of Leaves of Grass also appeared
during the most nationalistic period in American literature, when critics were
calling for a literature commensurate with the size, natural resources, and
potentialities of the North American continent. "We want" shouted a
character in Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's Kavanagh
(1849), "a national literature altogether shaggy and unshorn, that shall
shake the earth, like a herd of buffaloes thundering over the prairies."
With the same fervour, Whitman declared in his 1855 preface, "Here are the
roughs and beards and space and ruggedness and nonchalance that the soul
loves." In Leaves of Grass he
addressed the citizens of the United States, urging them to be large and
generous in spirit, a new race nurtured in political liberty, and possessed of
united souls and bodies.
It was partly in response to
nationalistic ideals and partly in accord with his ambition to cultivate and
express his own personality that the "I" of Whitman's poems asserted a
mythical strength and vitality. For the frontispiece to the first edition,
Whitman used a picture of himself in work clothes, posed nonchalantly with
cocked hat and hand in trouser pocket, as if illustrating a line in his leading
poem, "Song of Myself": "I cock my hat as I please indoors and
out." In this same poem he also characterized himself as:
Walt Whitman, an American, one of the
roughs,
a kosmos,
Disorderly fleshy and sensual . . .
eating drink-
ing and breeding,
. . . Divine am I inside and out, and I
make
holy whatever I touch or am touched
from . . .
From this time on throughout his life
Whitman attempted to dress the part and act the role of the shaggy, untamed
poetic spokesman of the proud young nation. For the expression of this persona
he also created a form of free verse without rhyme or metre, but abounding in
oratorical rhythms and chanted lists of American place-names and objects. He
learned to handle this primitive, enumerative style with great subtlety and was
especially successful in creating empathy of space and movement, but to most of
his contemporaries it seemed completely "unpoetic." Both the content
and the style of his verse also caused Whitman's early biographers, and even the
poet himself, to confuse the symbolic self of the poems with their physical
creator. In reality Whitman was quiet, gentle, courteous; neither
"rowdy" (a favourite word) nor lawless. In sexual conduct he may have
been unconventional, though no one is sure, but it is likely that the six
illegitimate children he boasted of in extreme old age were begotten by his
imagination. He did advocate greater sexual freedom and tolerance, but sex in
his poems is also symbolic--of natural innocence, "the procreant urge of
the world," and of the regenerative power of nature. In some of his poems
the poet's own erotic emotions may have confused him, but in his greatest, such
as parts of "Song of Myself" and all of "Out of the Cradle
Endlessly Rocking," sex is spiritualized.
Whitman's greatest theme is a symbolic
identification of the regenerative power of nature with the deathless divinity
of the soul. His poems are filled with a religious faith in the processes of
life, particularly those of fertility, sex, and the "unflagging
pregnancy" of nature: sprouting grass, mating birds, phallic vegetation,
the maternal ocean, and planets in formation ("the journey-work of
stars"). The poetic "I" of Leaves
of Grass transcends time and space, binding the past with the present and
intuiting the future, illustrating Whitman's belief that poetry is a form of
knowledge, the supreme wisdom of mankind.
At the time of his death Whitman was
more respected in Europe than in his own country. It was not as a poet, indeed,
but as a symbol of American democracy that he first won recognition. In the late
19th century his poems exercised a strong fascination on English readers who
found his championing of the common man idealistic and prophetic.
Whitman's aim was to transcend
traditional epics, to eschew normal aesthetic form, and yet by reflecting
American society to enable the poet and his readers to realize themselves and
the nature of their American experience. He has continued to hold the attention
of very different generations because he offered the welcome conviction that
"the crowning growth of the United States" was to be spiritual and
heroic and because he was able to uncompromisingly express his own personality
in poetic form. Modern readers can still share his preoccupation with the
problem of preserving the individual's integrity amid the pressures of mass
civilization. Scholars in the 20th century, however, find his social thought
less important than his artistry. T.S. Eliot said, "When Whitman speaks of
the lilacs or the mockingbird his theories and beliefs drop away like a needless
pretext." Whitman invigorated language; he could be strong yet sentimental;
and he possessed scope and inventiveness. He portrayed the relationships of
man's body and soul and the universe in a new way, often emancipating poetry
from contemporary conventions. He had sufficient universality to be considered
one of the greatest American poets. (A.N.J./
G.W.Al./Ed.) |
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