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Emerson, Ralph Waldo
(b. May 25, 1803, Boston, Mass., U.S.--d. April 27, 1882, Concord, Mass.),
American lecturer, poet, and essayist, the leading exponent of New
England Transcendentalism.
Emerson was the son of the Reverend
William Emerson, a Unitarian clergyman and friend of the arts. The son inherited
the profession of divinity, which had attracted all his ancestors in direct line
from Puritan days. The family of his mother, Ruth Haskins, was strongly
Anglican, and among influences on Emerson were such Anglican writers and
thinkers as Ralph Cudworth, Robert Leighton, Jeremy Taylor, and Samuel Taylor
Coleridge.
On May 12, 1811, Emerson's father died,
leaving the son largely to the intellectual care of Mary Moody Emerson, his
aunt, who took her duties seriously. In 1812 Emerson entered the Boston Public
Latin School, where his juvenile verses were encouraged and his literary gifts
recognized. In 1817 he entered Harvard College, where he began his journals,
which may be the most remarkable record of the "march of Mind" to
appear in the United States. He graduated in 1821 and taught school while
preparing for part-time study in the Harvard Divinity School. Though Emerson was
licensed to preach in the Unitarian community in 1826, illness slowed the
progress of his career, and he was not ordained to the Unitarian ministry at the
Second Church, Boston, until 1829. There he began to win fame as a preacher, and
his position seemed secure. In 1829 he also married Ellen Louisa Tucker. When
she died of tuberculosis in 1831, his grief drove him to question his beliefs
and his profession. But in the previous few years Emerson had already begun to
question Christian doctrines. His older brother William, who had gone to
Germany, had acquainted him with the new biblical criticism and the doubts that
had been cast on the historicity of miracles. Emerson's own sermons, from the
first, had been unusually free of traditional doctrine and were instead a
personal exploration of the uses of spirit, showing an idealistic tendency and
announcing his personal doctrine of self-reliance and self-sufficiency. Indeed,
his sermons had divested Christianity of all external or historical supports and
made its basis one's private intuition of the universal moral law and its test a
life of virtuous accomplishment. Unitarianism had little appeal to him by now,
and in 1832 he resigned from the ministry.
When Emerson left the church, he was in
search of a more certain conviction of God than that granted by the historical
evidences of miracles. He wanted his own revelation--i.e., a direct and immediate experience of God. When he left his
pulpit he journeyed to Europe. In Paris he saw Antoine-Laurent de Jussieu's
collection of natural specimens arranged in a developmental order that confirmed
his belief in man's spiritual relation to nature. In England he paid memorable
visits to Samuel Taylor Coleridge, William Wordsworth, and Thomas Carlyle. At
home once more in 1833, he began to write Nature and established himself as a popular and influential
lecturer. By 1834 he had found a permanent dwelling place in Concord, Mass., and
in the following year he married Lydia Jackson and settled into the kind of
quiet domestic life that was essential to his work.
The 1830s saw Emerson become an
independent literary man. During this decade his own personal doubts and
difficulties were increasingly shared by other intellectuals. Before the decade
was over his personal manifestos--Nature,
"The American Scholar," and the divinity school Address--had rallied together a group that came to be called the
Transcendentalists, of which he was popularly acknowledged the spokesman.
Emerson helped initiate Transcendentalism (q.v.)
by publishing anonymously in Boston in 1836 a little book of 95 pages entitled Nature. Having found the answers to his spiritual doubts, he
formulated his essential philosophy, and almost everything he ever wrote
afterward was an extension, amplification, or amendment of the ideas he first
affirmed in Nature.
Emerson's religious doubts had lain
deeper than his objection to the Unitarians' retention of belief in the
historicity of miracles. He was also deeply unsettled by Newtonian physics'
mechanistic conception of the universe and by the Lockean psychology of
sensation that he had learned at Harvard. Emerson felt that there was no place
for free will in the chains of mechanical cause and effect that rationalist
philosophers conceived the world as being made up of. This world could be known
only through the senses rather than through thought and intuition; it determined
men physically and psychologically; and yet it made them victims of
circumstance, beings whose superfluous mental powers were incapable of truly
ascertaining reality.
Emerson reclaimed an idealistic
philosophy from this dead end of 18th-century rationalism by once again
asserting the human ability to transcend the materialistic world of sense
experience and facts and become conscious of the all-pervading spirit of the
universe and the potentialities of human freedom. God could best be found by
looking inward into one's own self, one's own soul, and from such an enlightened
self-awareness would in turn come freedom of action and the ability to change
one's world according to the dictates of one's ideals and conscience. Human
spiritual renewal thus proceeds from the individual's intimate personal
experience of his own portion of the divine "oversoul," which is
present in and permeates the entire creation and all living things, and which is
accessible if only a person takes the trouble to look for it. Emerson enunciates
how "reason," which to him denotes the intuitive awareness of eternal
truth, can be relied upon in ways quite different from one's reliance on
"understanding"--i.e., the
ordinary gathering of sense-data and the logical comprehension of the material
world. Emerson's doctrine of self-sufficiency and self-reliance naturally
springs from his view that the individual need only look into his own heart for
the spiritual guidance that has hitherto been the province of the established
churches. The individual must then have the courage to be himself and to trust
the inner force within him as he lives his life according to his intuitively
derived precepts.
Obviously these ideas are far from
original, and it is clear that Emerson was influenced in his formulation of them
by his previous readings of Neoplatonist philosophy, the works of Coleridge and
other European Romantics, the writings of Emmanuel Swedenborg, Hindu philosophy,
and other sources. What set Emerson apart from others who were expressing
similar Transcendentalist notions were his abilities as a polished literary
stylist able to express his thought with vividness and breadth of vision. His
philosophical exposition has a peculiar power and an organic unity whose
cumulative effect was highly suggestive and stimulating to his contemporary
readers' imaginations.
In a lecture entitled "The American
Scholar" (Aug. 31, 1837), Emerson described the resources and duties of the
new liberated intellectual that he himself had become. This address was in
effect a challenge to the Harvard intelligentsia, warning against pedantry,
imitation of others, traditionalism, and scholarship unrelated to life.
Emerson's "Address at Divinity College," Harvard University, in 1838
was another challenge, this time directed against a lifeless Christian
tradition, especially Unitarianism as he had known it. He dismissed religious
institutions and the divinity of Jesus as failures in man's attempt to encounter
deity directly through the moral principle or through an intuited sentiment of
virtue. This address alienated many, left him with few opportunities to preach,
and resulted in his being ostracized by Harvard for many years. Young disciples,
however, joined the informal Transcendental Club (founded in 1836) and
encouraged him in his activities.
In 1840 he helped launch The
Dial, first edited by Margaret Fuller and later by himself, thus
providing an outlet for the new ideas Transcendentalists were trying to present
to America. Though short-lived, the magazine provided a rallying point for the
younger members of the school. From his continuing lecture series, he gathered
his Essays into two volumes (1841,
1844), which made him internationally famous. In his first volume of Essays
Emerson consolidated his thoughts on moral individualism and preached the ethics
of self-reliance, the duty of self-cultivation, and the need for the expression
of self. The second volume of Essays
shows Emerson accommodating his earlier idealism to the limitations of real
life; his later works show an increasing acquiescence to the state of things,
less reliance on self, greater respect for society, and an awareness of the
ambiguities and incompleteness of genius.
His Representative
Men (1849) contained biographies of Plato, Swedenborg, Montaigne,
Shakespeare, Napoleon, and Goethe. In English
Traits he gave a character analysis of a people from which he himself
stemmed. The Conduct of Life (1860),
Emerson's most mature work, reveals a developed humanism together with a full
awareness of man's limitations. It may be considered as partly confession.
Emerson's collected Poems (1846) were
supplemented by others in May-Day
(1867), and the two volumes established his reputation as a major American poet.
By the 1860s Emerson's reputation in
America was secure, for time was wearing down the novelty of his rebellion as he
slowly accommodated himself to society. He continued to give frequent lectures,
but the writing he did after 1860 shows a waning of his intellectual powers. A
new generation knew only the old Emerson and had absorbed his teaching without
recalling the acrimony it had occasioned. Upon his death in 1882 Emerson was
transformed into the Sage of Concord, shorn of his power as a liberator and
enrolled among the worthies of the very tradition he had set out to destroy.
Emerson's voice and rhetoric sustained
the faith of thousands in the American lecture circuits between 1834 and the
American Civil War. He served as a cultural middleman through whom the aesthetic
and philosophical currents of Europe passed to America, and he led his
countrymen during the burst of literary glory known as the American renaissance
(1835-65). As a principal spokesman for Transcendentalism, the American
tributary of European Romanticism, Emerson gave direction to a religious,
philosophical, and ethical movement that above all stressed belief in the
spiritual potential of every man.
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Collections of Emerson's writings include The Complete Works of Ralph Waldo
Emerson, ed. by Edward Waldo Emerson, 12 vol. (1903-04, reissued 1968); Journals
and Miscellaneous Notebooks, ed. by William H. Gilman et
al., 16 vol. (1960-82); and Emerson's
Literary Criticism, ed. by Eric W. Carlson (1979). See also The Letters of Ralph Waldo Emerson,
ed. by Ralph L. Rusk, 6 vol. (1939, reprinted 1966).
Contemporary biographies include Oliver Wendell Holmes, Ralph Waldo Emerson (1885,
reprinted 1980); and James Elliot Cabot, A
Memoir of Ralph Waldo Emerson, 2 vol. (1887, reprinted 1969), by Emerson's
literary executor. The standard scholarly biography is Gay Wilson Allen, Waldo
Emerson (1981). Other modern treatments are Ralph L. Rusk, The
Life of Ralph Waldo Emerson (1949, reissued 1967); and Donald Yannella, Ralph
Waldo Emerson (1982).
Robert E. Burkholder and Joel Myerson (comps.), Critical Essays on Ralph Waldo
Emerson (1983), is a useful collection. Aspects of Emerson's works are
discussed in Arthur Christy, The Orient in
American Transcendentalism: A Study of Emerson, Thoreau, and Alcott (1932,
reissued 1978); Vivian C. Hopkins, Spires
of Form: A Study of Emerson's Aesthetic Theory (1951, reissued 1965), a
discussion of Emerson's employment of Romantic organicism; Lewis Leary, Ralph
Waldo Emerson: An Interpretive Essay (1980), a general introduction to
Emerson's art and thought; Sherman Paul, Emerson's
Angle of Vision: Man and Nature in American Experience (1952, reissued
1969), a discussion of the Law of Correspondence, which lies at the core of
Emerson's epistemology; Hyatt H. Waggoner, Emerson
As Poet (1974), a depiction of Emerson as a major figure in the development
of American verse; Stephen E. Whicher, Freedom
and Fate: An Inner Life of Ralph Waldo Emerson, 2nd ed. (1971), a study of
the modification of Emerson's idealism.
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±èÀçÇö Æí¿ª, ¿Ü±¹¾î¿¬¼ö»ç, 1993
°³°í ¹Ì±¹¹®Çлç :
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¹Ì±¹¹®Çлç : M.
½Ç¹ö, Á¤ÅÂÁø ¿ª,
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ÀϽŻç, 1989
¹Ì±¹ ÃÊ¿ùÁÖÀÇÀÇ ÀÌÇØ : P. F.
º¼·¯, Á¤ÅÂÁø ¿ª,
ÇѽŹ®È»ç, 1989
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Çѱ¹¿µ¾î¿µ¹®ÇÐȸ Æí, ½Å±¸¹®È»ç, 1963
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Àå¼¼±â, È¿¼º¿©ÀÚ´ëÇб³, 1981
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16 :
½ÅÀç½Ç, Çѱ¹¿µ¾î¿µ¹®ÇÐȸ ÃæÃ»ÁöºÎ, 1980
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8 : °û³ëÁø,
°üµ¿´ëÇб³, 1980
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¡´¼¿ï¿©ÀÚ´ëÇб³³í¹®Áý¡µ 7 : ÀåÁ¤³²,
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1978
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¿¡¸Ó½¼°ú ÈÖÆ®¸ÕÀ» Áß½ÉÀ¸·Î
¡´¹Ì±¹ÇÐ³í¹®Áý¡µ 3 : ¹Ú»ó¿ë,
ÃæÃ»¾Æ¸Þ¸®Ä«ÇÐȸ, 1978
¾Æ¸Þ¸®Ä«ÀÇ ÃÊÀýÁÖÀÇ - R.W. ¿¡¸Ó½¼À» Áß½ÉÀ¸·Î ¡´American
Studies Seminar¡µ : ±èÅÂÁø, ºÎ»ê¾Æ¸Þ¸®Ä«ÇÐȸ, 1974
R.W. ¿¡¸Ó½¼ÀÇ ±³ÈÆ ¡´Taegu Review¡µ 9 : Àå¼¼±â,
Çѱ¹¿µ¾î¿µ¹®ÇÐȸ ´ë±¸ÁöºÎ, 1969 |