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Louis was born of Patrick, a dancing
master, and Adrienne Françoise (List) Sullivan. His Irish-born father and
Swiss-born mother had emigrated to the United States in 1847 and 1850,
respectively, and were married in 1852. Their older son, Albert Walter, was born
in 1854. Sullivan attended public schools in the Boston area and spent summers
on his grandparents' farm in nearby South Reading. When his parents moved to
Chicago in 1869, Sullivan stayed behind with his grandparents and later with
neighbours, commuting to school in Boston.
In September 1872 he entered
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, which had the first architectural school
in the United States (founded 1865). Sullivan was an impatient architectural
student and left at the end of the year with thoughts of studying at the
École des Beaux-Arts in Paris or of being an apprentice to an architect.
He discussed his ideas in New York City with Richard
Morris Hunt, one of the fashionable architects of the day and the first
American to study architecture at the Beaux-Arts. Hunt suggested he work with
the Philadelphia firm of Furness and Hewitt.
Sullivan was hired, staying for several months until work dwindled in the
economic panic of 1873. In November he left for
Chicago and was soon employed in the architectural office of a prominent figure
in the development of the style of the Chicago School,
William Le Baron Jenney. The office foreman,
John Edelmann, became his friend.
The idea of studying in Paris persisted,
however, and in July 1874 he sailed for Europe. Sullivan worked hard to pass the
difficult entrance examinations for the Beaux-Arts, although after he was
accepted he proved to be a restless and erratic student. He made a brief
excursion to Florence and Rome. A romantic young man with sideburns, he affected
a certain swagger in dress. During the single year he remained in Paris, he was
attached to the atelier of the architect Émile Vaudremer.
Back in Chicago in June 1875, Sullivan
worked briefly as a draftsman for a number of firms. One such job was for the
recently formed firm of Johnston and Edelmann. It was John Edelmann who made the
momentous introduction of Sullivan to his future partner, Dankmar
Adler. In 1879 Sullivan joined Adler's office and in May 1881, at the age
of 24, became a partner in the firm of Adler and Sullivan, Architects. Their
14-year association produced more than 100 buildings, many of them landmarks in
the history of U.S. architecture.
Sullivan's brilliance as a designer
was complemented by Adler's business ability, his tact with clients, and his
knowledge of technical matters, especially acoustics. After coming to Chicago in
1861, Adler had worked as a draftsman, and he returned to the city after serving
in the Civil War. In 1871 he formed a successful partnership with Edward Burling
that lasted until 1879. As an independent architect Adler designed Central Music
Hall in Chicago (1879), which was the prototype of theatres later designed by
the firm of Adler and Sullivan. Adler was a consultant on acoustics and in his
later years was a writer on the technical and legal aspects of architecture.
Although Adler and Sullivan did
substantial residential work, it was in their commercial work that they made
their art-historic contribution. Most of their buildings were in Chicago, where
the commercial expansion of the 1880s resulted in many commissions.
The early years of the Adler and
Sullivan practice did not result in buildings of lasting interest, however. It
was the commission in 1886 to design the Auditorium
Building in Chicago that marked the first period of Sullivan's design
maturity. This project was a curious combination of a hotel and office block
wrapped in a U-shape around a 3,982-seat auditorium for opera. Completed in
December 1889, it is a 10-story-high building of granite and limestone with a
17-story tower. The noble arcaded exterior is very simple in profile, has little
ornament, and owes much to the architect H.H.
Richardson's design for the Marshall Field
Wholesale Store, then recently completed in Chicago. The interior,
however, is lavishly decorated with relief ornament and coloured stencilled
patterns, all of which brought forth Sullivan's great talent for designing
ornamentation. The interior of the auditorium (restored 1967) is particularly
opulent and features gilded plasterwork and countless electric light bulbs. The
decoration, which is dazzling and properly theatrical, owes nothing to
historical eclecticism. The astonishingly effective acoustical design of the
auditorium was the work of Adler, who was also responsible for all structural
and mechanical aspects of the building.
Even before the auditorium proper was
complete, the Adler and Sullivan firm moved to offices on the 16th floor of the
tower, then the highest office suite in Chicago. It was there that the young Frank
Lloyd Wright spent six years as apprentice to Sullivan. Wright left in
1893 after a quarrel with Sullivan, and it was not until 1914 that the
friendship was renewed. He always acknowledged, however, the influence of
Sullivan in shaping his work and ideas.
The 10-story Wainwright
Building in St. Louis is the most important skyscraper designed by
Sullivan. Unlike the Auditorium Building, the exterior walls of which are solid
masonry and load bearing, it is of steel frame throughout, an idea advanced by
William Le Baron Jenney in 1883-85 in Chicago. Jenney and others were unable to
give visual expression to the height of a tall building and often resorted to
unsuitable historical styles. Sullivan, however, took the problem in hand and
made his design a "proud and soaring" unity. He gave his building a
two-story base, above which the vertical elements are stressed and the
horizontals, being recessed, are minimized. These vertical rhythms are capped by
a deep decorative frieze and a projecting cornice. The 16-story Guaranty (now
Prudential) Building in Buffalo by Adler and Sullivan is similar except that its
surface is sheathed in decorative terra-cotta instead of red brick. Both
buildings are among the best of Adler and Sullivan's work. (see also Index:
framed building, Guaranty
Building)
The 1893 Columbian Exposition held in
Chicago was a great disappointment to Louis Sullivan. The opportunity to design
an international fair with imagination was passed over in favour of a loose
adaptation of Classical architecture. The spectacle of an ensemble of these
all-white buildings was an enormous success with the public. The Adler and
Sullivan contribution was the Transportation Building, which stood apart and was
painted in various strong colours as if in protest. It was a long, low arcaded
building with a large polychromed archway entrance (the so-called Golden Door).
Not all visitors were impressed by the neo-Roman grandeur of the fair. André
Bouilhet, a delegate representing a Parisian decorative-arts union, praised the
originality of the Transportation Building. Furthermore, he arranged for a small
exhibit in Paris of Sullivan's work, including a plaster cast of the Golden Door
and some photographs of his taller buildings. The exhibit later went to Russia
and Finland. This European recognition, however, did not allay Sullivan's
bitterness. He considered the Exposition a rejection of the progressive
architecture that he saw developing in the Midwest. "The damage wrought by
the World's Fair," he wrote, "will last for half a century from its
date, if not longer. It has penetrated deep into the constitution of the
American mind." It is with this event that Sullivan ended the Autobiography
of an Idea (1924), his account of his career and his architectural theories.
(see also Index: World's
Columbian Exposition)
The economic depression that began in
1893 severely curtailed commissions. With a lucrative offer as designer and
agent for the Crane Elevator Company, Adler reluctantly decided in 1895 to
withdraw from architecture. Sullivan reacted badly, accusing Adler of
disloyalty. Adler's new job proved unsatisfactory, and he decided to return to
architecture six months later. His offer to reestablish the firm was unwisely
refused by Sullivan, and Adler opened his own office in another part of the
Auditorium Building, where he practiced until his death in 1900.
In 1895, proud and optimistic, Sullivan
began to practice by himself. His temperament was unsuited, however, to the
handling of all of the phases of architectural practice. New work was slow in
coming. George Grant Elmslie, whom he had hired
in 1889 at the age of 18, remained a loyal employee. Nevertheless, he was aware
of Sullivan's shortcomings:
He could be arrogant and unnecessarily
decisive . . . prone to give advice where not needed, to good clients . . . he
lost many jobs because he would not compromise his ideals, nor play fast and
loose with vital conceptions of what was fitting for the purpose intended.
A simple tabulation of Sullivan's 20
commissions during the last 30 years of his life indicates the near collapse of
his practice.
Among the few major commissions Sullivan
received was the one for the Schlesinger & Mayer department store in
Chicago, occupied by Carson Pirie Scott &
Co. since 1904. Two connecting units were built between 1899 and 1904, and a
third unit was added in 1906 by Daniel H. Burnham and Co., largely following
Sullivan's original design. In contrast to the vertical emphasis of the
Wainwright and Guaranty buildings, which are offices, the design for this
department store stresses the horizontal. Particularly notable are the
rectangular "Chicago windows"--each a
large fixed pane flanked by movable sash windows. The elegant simplicity of the
upper floors is in contrast to the lavish decoration of the first two, which
have windows that were treated as display windows, with the architectural
decoration forming rich picture frames. This cast-iron ornament is based on a
combination of geometric and stylized floral forms. Much of it is thought to
have been designed by Elmslie, in emulation of Sullivan's style. In any case,
the decoration of the Carson Pirie Scott & Co. store, particularly the
ornament over the main entrance, represents the height of Sullivan's achievement
as a designer of architectural ornamentation. Only the decorative panels that
once surrounded Sullivan's Gage Building in Chicago were a match for its
decorative exuberance.
Greater plastic richness and a
heightened subjectivity are apparent in Sullivan's work after 1895. His 12-story
Bayard (now Condict) Building in New York City was embellished with molded
terra-cotta and cast-iron ornament.
As his flourishing years with Adler
became a provoking memory, Sullivan grew lonely and difficult. He became
estranged from his brother Albert, who was a successful official of the Illinois
Central railroad and who also lived in Chicago. The middle-aged Sullivan became
something of a recluse, seeking solace in writing and in visits to his winter
cottage in Ocean Springs, Miss. His marriage in 1899 to Margaret Davies
Hattabough did little to bring lasting happiness; they were separated in 1906
and divorced in 1917 without having had children. With declining income,
Sullivan moved to progressively cheaper hotels in an effort to economize. By
1909 a lack of commissions reduced him to desperate straits; he was forced to
sell his library and household effects. Perhaps an equal loss was the departure
that year of Elmslie, his assistant for 20 years, who went to join forces in
Minneapolis with William Gray Purcell, an architect who had worked briefly for
Sullivan in 1903.
Particularly noteworthy projects
undertaken in his last years were seven banks in a number of small Midwestern
towns, beginning with the National Farmers' (now Security) Bank in Owatonna,
Minn. Sullivan's work habits had become erratic, and it is known that this
particular design is primarily the work of Elmslie. It has a simple cube form
pierced on two sides by large arched windows. Its walls of red sandstone and
brick, which convey a sense of security, are ornamented by bands of coloured
mosaic and blue-green glazed terra-cotta. The balance between simple form and
decoration in this structure has been much admired. The square interior was
designed in harmony with the exterior: semicircular murals appear opposite the
two arched windows.
Another attractive bank design is that
of the Merchants' National Bank in Grinnell,
Iowa (1914). Like the Owatonna bank, it has a relatively austere form, relieved
by imaginative, intricate ornament. The facade is embellished with a spectacular
decorative frame for the circular window above the entrance. Sullivan's last
commission was the facade for the Krause Music Store in Chicago (1922).
Sullivan had to abandon his Auditorium
tower suite in 1918 for a small second-floor office. In 1920 he had no office at
all and was reduced to living in one bedroom, being supported by friends. His
workplace came to be a desk in the office of a Chicago terra-cotta company,
where he was able to complete two significant projects: the writing of his Autobiography
and the completion of 19 plates for A
System of Architectural Ornament According with a Philosophy of Man's Powers (1924).
He died a week after he had received published copies of these two works.
Sullivan was buried in Graceland Cemetery in Chicago, next to the graves of his
parents and within sight of the Getty and Ryerson Tombs, which he had designed.
Later, a modest stone was erected by friends. Much later, in 1946, the American
Institute of Architects awarded him its Gold Medal.
Sullivan was a spokesman for the reform
of architecture, an opponent of historical eclecticism, and did much to remake
the image of the architect as a creative personality. His own designs are
characterized by richness of ornament. His importance lies in his writings as
well as in his architectural achievements. These writings, which are subjective
and metaphorical, suggest directions for architecture, rather than explicit
doctrines or programs. Sullivan himself warned of the danger of mechanical
theories of art.
Sources of Sullivan's ideas have been
traced to the mid-19th-century writings of two Americans, the sculptor Horatio
Greenough and the essayist Ralph Waldo Emerson, as well as to the English
naturalist Charles Darwin. Darwin's writings on
evolution, particularly on organic growth, left their mark on European writers
on architecture and, in turn, on Sullivan's own thinking. The French architect César-Denis
Daly, for example, in an essay reprinted in a Chicago architectural journal,
stated that
each style of architecture . . . being
born of the intellectual and moral forces of a human society . . . , has become
naturally the expression of a certain civilization . . . The adoption by one age
of a style . . . other than that which it has itself created, is hence in itself
a false principle.
Out of such inquiries into the nature of
style came Sullivan's own famous dictum "form follows function," a
phrase that should not lead one to conclude that Sullivan believed that a design
should be a mechanistic visual statement of utility. Rather, he believed that
architecture must evolve from and express the environment in addition to
expressing its particular function and its structural basis. It has been said
that Sullivan was the first American architect to think consciously of the
relationship between architecture and civilization.
The skyscraper was central to both
Sullivan's writing and his practice, and it is on this subject that his thought
is most concise. His pre-skyscraper commercial buildings in Chicago, such as the
Rothschild Store and Troescher Building, show a conscious clarification and
opening up of the facade. This simplification is carried into his
"skyscrapers," the Wainwright and the Guaranty, which are conceived as
"a single, germinal impulse or idea" that permeates "the mass and
its every detail with the same spirit." The exceptional clarity of
Sullivan's designs has lost some of its impact because contemporary architecture
has in part absorbed his ideas. Sullivan considered it obvious that the design
of a tall office building should follow the functions of the building and that,
where the function does not change, the form should not change. Unfortunately,
Sullivan's most dramatic skyscraper design, the Fraternity Temple (1891),
intended for Chicago, was never built. This was to be a symmetrical structure
with bold step-back forms and a soaring 35-story central tower.
Sullivan was just as much a
revolutionary in his ornament as he was in his use of plain surfaces and cubic
forms. His ornament was not based on historical precedent but rather upon
geometry and the stylized forms of nature. Although his early ornament has some
links to that of the Gothic Revival style and to the Queen Anne style, his
mature ornament, seen best in his works at the turn of the century, is
indisputably his own. It stands as a curious yet unrelated parallel to Art
Nouveau ornamentation in Europe. Crisp yet fluid, tightly constructed yet
exuberant, these designs remind one of Sullivan's feeling that architecture
should not only serve and express society but also illuminate the heart.
Sullivan's own Autobiography of an Idea (1924) and Kindergarten Chats (published serially in 1901-02) are indispensable
for a grasp of his architectural theory. The 1947 Wittenborn edition of the
latter, Kindergarten Chats and Other
Writings (rev. 1918), includes eight additional essays by Sullivan and a
bibliography. (H.F.K.) |
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