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The son of a grocer in Vermont, Dewey
attended the public schools of Burlington and there entered the University of
Vermont. After graduating from the university in 1879, Dewey taught high school
for three years. In the fall of 1882 he entered Johns Hopkins University, in
Baltimore, for advanced study in philosophy. There he came under the influence
of George Sylvester Morris, who was a leading exponent of Neo-Hegelianism, a
revival of the thought of the early-19th-century German philosopher Hegel.
Dewey found in this philosophy, with its emphasis on the spiritual and organic
nature of the universe, what he had been vaguely groping for, and he eagerly
embraced it.
After being awarded the Ph.D. degree by
Johns Hopkins University in 1884, Dewey, in the fall of that year, went to the
University of Michigan, where, at the urging of Morris, he had been appointed an
instructor in philosophy and psychology. With the exception of the academic year
1888-89, when he served as professor of philosophy at the University of
Minnesota, Dewey spent the next 10 years at Michigan. During this time his
philosophical endeavours were devoted mainly to an intensive study of Hegel and
the British Neo-Hegelians and to the new experimental physiological psychology
then being advanced in the United States by G. Stanley Hall and William James.
Dewey's interest in education began
during his years at Michigan. His readings and observations revealed that most
schools were proceeding along lines set by early traditions and were failing to
adjust to the latest findings of child psychology and to the needs of a changing
democratic social order. The search for a philosophy of education that would
remedy these defects became a major concern for Dewey and added a new dimension
to his thinking.
Dewey left Michigan in 1894 to become
professor of philosophy and chairman of the department of philosophy,
psychology, and pedagogy at the University of Chicago.
Dewey's achievements there brought him national fame. The increasing dominance
of evolutionary biology and psychology in his thinking led him to abandon the
Hegelian theory of ideas, which views them as somehow mirroring the rational
order of the universe, and to accept instead an instrumentalist
theory of knowledge, which conceives of ideas as tools or instruments in the
solution of problems encountered in the environment. These same disciplines
contributed somewhat later to his rejection of the Hegelian notion of an
Absolute Mind manifesting itself as a rationally structured, material universe
and as realizing its goals through a dialectic of ideas. Dewey found more
acceptable a theory of reality holding that nature, as encountered in scientific
and ordinary experience, is the ultimate reality
and that man is a product of nature who finds his meaning and goals in life here
and now.
Since these doctrines, which were to
remain at the centre of all of Dewey's future philosophizing, also furnished the
framework in which Dewey's colleagues in the department carried on their
research, a distinct school of philosophy was in operation. This was recognized
by William James in 1903, when a collection of
essays written by Dewey and seven of his associates in the department, Studies
in Logical Theory, appeared. James hailed the book enthusiastically and
declared that with its publication a new school of philosophy, the Chicago
school, had made its appearance.
Dewey's philosophical orientation has
been labeled a form of pragmatism, though Dewey himself seemed to favour the
term "instrumentalism," or "experimentalism." William
James's The
Principles of Psychology early stimulated Dewey's rethinking of logic
and ethics by directing his attention to the practical function of ideas and
concepts, but Dewey and the Chicago school of pragmatists went farther than
James had gone in that they conceived of ideas as instruments for transforming
the uneasiness connected with the experience of having a problem into the
satisfaction of some resolution or clarification of it.
Dewey's preferred mode of inquiry was
scientific investigation; he thought the experimental methods of modern science
provided the most promising approach to social and ethical as well as scientific
problems. He rejected the idea of a fixed and immutable moral law derivable from
consideration of the essential nature of man, since such a traditional
philosophical method denied the potential application and promise of newer
empirical and scientific methods.
Dewey developed from these views a
philosophical ground for democracy and liberalism. He conceived of democracy not
as a mere form of government, but rather as a mode of association which provides
the members of a society with the opportunity for maximum experimentation and
personal growth. The ideal society, for Dewey, was one that provided the
conditions for ever enlarging the experience of all its members.
Dewey's contributions to psychology were
also noteworthy. Many of the articles he wrote at that time are now accepted as
classics in psychological literature and assure him a secure place in the
history of psychology. Most significant is the essay "The Reflex Arc
Concept in Psychology," which is generally taken to mark the beginnings of functional
psychology--i.e., one that focuses on the total organism in its endeavours to
adjust to the environment.
Educational
theory and practice. Dewey's work in philosophy
and psychology was largely centred in his major interest, educational reform. In
formulating educational criteria and aims, he drew heavily on the insights into
learning offered by contemporary psychology as applied to children. He viewed
thought and learning as a process of inquiry starting from doubt or uncertainty
and spurred by the desire to resolve practical frictions or relieve strain and
tension. Education must therefore begin with experience, which has as its aim
growth and the achievement of maturity.
Dewey's writings on education, notably
his The School and Society (1899) and The
Child and the Curriculum (1902), presented and defended what were to remain
the chief underlying tenets of the philosophy of education he originated. These
tenets were that the educational process must begin with and build upon the
interests of the child; that it must provide opportunity for the interplay of
thinking and doing in the child's classroom experience; that the teacher should
be a guide and coworker with the pupils, rather than a taskmaster assigning a
fixed set of lessons and recitations; and that the school's goal is the growth
of the child in all aspects of its being.
Among the results of Dewey's
administrative efforts were the establishment of an independent department of
pedagogy and of the University of Chicago's Laboratory
Schools, in which the educational theories and practices suggested by
psychology and philosophy could be tested. The Laboratory Schools, which began
operation in 1896, attracted wide attention and enhanced the reputation of the
University of Chicago as a foremost centre of progressive educational thought.
Dewey headed the Laboratory Schools until 1904.
Dewey's ideas and proposals strongly
affected educational theory and practice in the United States. Aspects of his
views were seized upon by the "progressive movement" in education,
which stressed the student-centred rather than the subject-centred school,
education through activity rather than through formal learning, and laboratory,
workshop, or occupational education rather than the mastery of traditional
subjects. But though Dewey's own faith in progressive education never wavered,
he came to realize that the zeal of his followers introduced a number of
excesses and defects into progressive education. Indeed, in Experience
and Education (1938) he sharply criticized educators who sought merely to
interest or amuse students, disregarded organized subject matter in favour of
mere activity on the part of students, and were content with mere vocational
training.
During the last two decades of Dewey's
life, his philosophy of education was the target of numerous and widespread
attacks. Progressive educational practices were blamed for the failure of some
American school systems to train pupils adequately in the liberal arts and for
their neglect of such basic subjects as mathematics and science. Furthermore,
critics blamed Dewey and his progressive ideas for what the former viewed as an
insufficient emphasis on discipline in the schools.
Disagreements between President William
Rainey Harper of the University of Chicago and Dewey led, in 1904, to Dewey's
resignation of his posts and to his acceptance of a professorship of philosophy
at Columbia University in New York City. Dewey
was associated with Columbia for 47 years, first as professor and then as
professor emeritus of philosophy. During his 25 years of active teaching, his
fame and the significance of what he had to say attracted thousands of students
from home and abroad to his classes, and he became one of the most widely known
and influential teachers in America.
Dewey's scholarly output at Columbia was
enormous; one bibliography devotes approximately 125 pages to listing the titles
of his publications during these years. His thought covered a wide range of
topics, including logic and theory of knowledge, psychology, education, social
philosophy, fine arts, and religion. Major works dealing with each of these
fields appeared over the years and clearly established Dewey as the foremost
philosopher in America and as one of the nation's most productive scholars. His Experience
and Nature, published in 1925, brings together in a systematic way the more
important aspects of his philosophy and is generally regarded as his magnum
opus.
His interest in current affairs prompted
Dewey to contribute regularly to liberal periodicals, especially The
New Republic. His articles focused on domestic, foreign, and
international developments and were designed to reach a wide reading public.
Because of his skill in analyzing and interpreting events, he soon was rated as
among the best of American commentators and social critics.
Dewey also gave his time and energy to
the support of organizations and causes in which he believed. In 1915 he became
one of the founders and the first president of the American
Association of University Professors, and the next year he became a
charter member of the first teachers' union in New York City. He helped found
the New School for Social Research in 1919 and
the University-in-Exile in 1933, established for scholars being persecuted in
countries under totalitarian regimes. In the 1920s he visited Japan, Mexico, and
the Soviet Union to study educational methods in those countries. In 1937, at
age 78, he headed a commission of inquiry that went to Mexico City to hear Leon
Trotsky's rebuttal of the charges made against him in the Moscow show trials of
1936 and 1937.
Dewey retired from the Columbia faculty
in 1930, after which he concentrated on public affairs while continuing to
write. Among his books on psychology and philosophy are Psychology (1887), Ethics
(cowritten with James Tufts; 1908), Reconstruction
in Philosophy (1920), Human Nature and
Conduct (1922), The Quest for
Certainty (1929), Art as Experience
(1934), Logic, the Theory of Inquiry
(1938), and Freedom and Culture
(1939). His chief later writings on education are Democracy and Education (1916) and Experience and Education (1938). (G.Dy.
/C.H.F.) |
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