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Carlyle was the second son of James
Carlyle, the eldest child of his second marriage. James Carlyle was a mason by
trade and, later, a small farmer, a man of profound Calvinist convictions whose
character and way of life had a profound and lasting influence on his son.
Carlyle was equally devoted to his mother as well as to his eight brothers and
sisters, and his strong affection for his family never diminished.
After attending the village school at
Ecclefechan, Thomas was sent in 1805 to Annan Academy, where he apparently
suffered from bullying, and later to the University of Edinburgh (1809), where
he read widely but followed no precise line of study. His father had intended
him to enter the ministry, but Thomas became increasingly doubtful of his
vocation. He had an aptitude for mathematics, and in 1814 he obtained a
mathematical teaching post at Annan. In 1816 he went to another school, at
Kirkcaldy, where the Scottish preacher and mystic Edward Irving was teaching. He
became one of the few men to whom Carlyle gave complete admiration and
affection. "But for Irving," Carlyle commented sometime later, "I
had never known what communion of man with man means." Their friendship
continued even after Irving moved in 1822 to London, where he became famous as a
preacher.
The next years were hard for Carlyle.
Teaching did not suit him and he abandoned it. In December 1819 he returned to
Edinburgh University to study law, and there he spent three miserable years,
lonely, unable to feel certain of any meaning in life, and eventually abandoning
the idea of entering the ministry. He did a little coaching (tutoring) and
journalism, was poor and isolated, and was conscious of intense spiritual
struggles. About 1821 he experienced a kind of conversion, which he described
some years later in fictionalized account in Sartor Resartus, whose salient
feature was that it was negative--hatred of the devil, not love of God, being
the dominating idea. Though it may be doubted whether everything was really
experienced as he described it, this violence is certainly characteristic of
Carlyle's tortured and defiant spirit. In those lean years he began his serious
study of German, which always remained the literature he most admired and
enjoyed. For Goethe, especially, he had the
greatest reverence, and he published a translation, Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship, in 1824. Meanwhile, he led a
nomadic life, holding several brief tutorships at Edinburgh, Dunkeld, and
elsewhere.
On Oct. 17, 1826, Carlyle married Jane
Welsh, an intelligent, attractive, and somewhat temperamental daughter of a
well-to-do doctor in Haddington. Welsh had been one of Irving's pupils, and she
and Carlyle had known one another for five years. The hesitations and financial
worries that beset them are recorded in their letters. It is interesting that
Carlyle, usually so imperious, often adopted a weak, pleading tone to his future
wife during the time of courtship, though this did not prevent him from being a
masterful, difficult, and irritable husband; and, in spite of their strong
mutual affection, their marriage was full of quarrels and misunderstandings.
Those who knew him best believed Carlyle to be impotent.
In the early years of their marriage the
Carlyles lived mostly at Craigenputtock, Dumfriesshire, and Carlyle contributed
to the Edinburgh Review and worked on Sartor
Resartus. Though this book eventually achieved great popular success, he had
at first much difficulty in finding a publisher for it. Written with mingled
bitterness and humour, it is a fantastic hodgepodge of autobiography and German
philosophy. Its main theme is that the intellectual forms in which men's deepest
convictions have been cast are dead and that new ones must be found to fit the
time but that the intellectual content of this new religious system is elusive.
Its author speaks of "embodying the Divine Spirit of religion in a new
Mythus, in a new vehicle and vesture," but he never says very clearly what
the new vesture is to be.
In 1834, after failing to obtain several
posts he had desired, Carlyle moved to London with his wife and settled in
Cheyne Row. Though he had not earned anything by his writings for more than a
year and was fearful of the day when his savings would be exhausted, he refused
to compromise but began an ambitious historical work, The French Revolution. The story of
how the partially completed manuscript was lent to J.S.
Mill and accidentally burned is well known. After the accident Carlyle
wrote to Mill in a generous, almost gay, tone, which is truly remarkable when
Carlyle's ambition, his complete dependence upon a successful literary career,
his poverty, the months of wasted work, and his habitual melancholy and
irritability are considered. The truth seems to be that he could bear grand and
terrible trials more easily than petty annoyances. His habitual, frustrated
melancholy arose, in part, from the fact that his misfortunes were not serious
enough to match his tragic view of life; and he sought relief in intensive
historical research, choosing subjects in which divine drama, lacking in his own
life, seemed most evident. His book on the French Revolution is perhaps his
greatest achievement. After the loss of the manuscript he worked furiously at
rewriting it. It was finished early in 1837 and soon won both serious acclaim
and popular success, besides bringing him many invitations to lecture, thus
solving his financial difficulties.
True to his idea of history as a
"Divine Scripture," Carlyle saw the French Revolution as an inevitable
judgment upon the folly and selfishness of the monarchy and nobility. This
simple idea was backed with an immense mass of well-documented detail and, at
times, a memorable skill in sketching character. The following extract is
characteristic of the contorted, fiery, and doom-laden prose, which is
alternately colloquial, humorous, and grim:
. . . an august Assembly spread its
pavilion; curtained by the dark infinite of discords; founded on the wavering
bottomless of the Abyss; and keeps continual hubbub. Time is around it, and
Eternity, and the Inane; and it does what it can, what is given it to do (part
2, book 3, ch. 3).
Though many readers were thrilled by the
drama of the narrative, it is not surprising that they were puzzled by Carlyle's
prophetic harangues and their relevance to the contemporary situation.
In Chartism
(1840) he appeared as a bitter opponent of conventional economic theory, but
the radical-progressive and the reactionary elements were curiously blurred and
mingled. With the publication of On
Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History (1841) his reverence for
strength, particularly when combined with the conviction of a God-given mission,
began to emerge. He discussed the hero as divinity (pagan myths), as prophet (Muhammad),
as poet (Dante and Shakespeare), as priest (Luther and Knox), as man of letters
(Johnson and Burns), and as king (Cromwell and Napoleon). It is perhaps in his
treatment of poets that Carlyle shows to the best advantage. Perverse though he
could be, he was never at the mercy of fashion; and he saw much more,
particularly in Dante, than others did. Two years later this idea of the hero
was elaborated in Past and Present, which strove
"to penetrate . . . into a somewhat remote century . . . in hope of perhaps
illustrating our own poor century thereby." He contrasts the wise and
strong rule of a medieval abbot with the muddled softness and chaos of the 19th
century, pronouncing in favour of the former, in spite of the fact that he had
rejected dogmatic Christianity and had a special aversion to the Roman Catholic
Church.
It was natural that Carlyle should turn
to Cromwell as the greatest English example of his ideal man and should produce
the bulky Oliver Cromwell's Letters and
Speeches. With Elucidations in 1845. His next important work was Latter-Day
Pamphlets (1850), in which the savage side of his nature was particularly
prominent. In the essay on model prisons, for instance, he tried to persuade the
public that the most brutal and useless sections of the population were being
coddled in the new prisons of the 19th century. Though incapable of lying,
Carlyle was completely unreliable as an observer, since he invariably saw what
he had decided in advance that he ought to see.
In 1857 he embarked on a massive study
of another of his heroes, Frederick the Great, and The History of Friedrich II of Prussia, Called Frederick the Great appeared
between 1858 and 1865. Something of his political attitude at this time can be
gathered from a letter written in April 1855 to the exiled Russian revolutionary
A.I. Herzen, in which he says "I never had, and have now (if it were
possible) less than ever, the least hope in 'Universal Suffrage' under any of
its modifications" and refers to "the sheer Anarchy (as I reckon it
sadly to be) which is got by 'Parliamentary eloquence,' Free Press, and counting
of heads" (quoted from E.H. Carr, The Romantic Exiles).
Unfortunately, Carlyle was never able to
respect ordinary men. Here, perhaps, rather than in any historical doubts about
the veracity of the gospels, was the core of his quarrel with Christianity--it
set too much value on the weak and sinful. His fierceness of spirit was composed
of two elements, a serious Calvinistic desire to denounce evil and a habitual
nervous ill temper, for which he often reproached himself but which he never
managed to defeat.
In 1865 he was offered the rectorship of
Edinburgh University. The speech that he delivered at his installation in April
1866 was not very remarkable in itself but its tone of high moral exhortation
made it an immediate success. It was published in 1866 under the title On
the Choice of Books. Soon after his triumph in Edinburgh, Jane Carlyle died
suddenly in London. She was buried in Haddington, and an epitaph by her husband
was placed in the church. Carlyle never completely recovered from her death. He
lived another 15 years, weary, bored, and a partial recluse. A few public causes
gained his support: he was active in the defense of Gov. E.J. Eyre of Jamaica,
who was dismissed for his severity in putting down a Negro uprising in 1865.
Carlyle commended him for "saving the West Indies and hanging one
incendiary mulatto, well worth gallows, if I can judge." He was excited by
the Franco-German War (1870-71), saying "Germany ought to be President of
Europe," but such enthusiastic moments soon faded. In these last years he
wrote little. His history The Early Kings
of Norway: Also an Essay on the Portraits of John Knox came out in 1875, and
Reminiscences was published in 1881. Later he edited his wife's
letters, which appeared in 1883 under the title Letters and Memorials of Jane Welsh Carlyle, Prepared for Publication by
Thomas Carlyle. Although Westminster Abbey was offered for his burial, he
was buried, according to his wish, beside his parents at Ecclefechan. |
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