Introduction
National
Socialism, also called NAZISM, or NAZIISM, German
NATIONALSOZIALISMUS, or NAZISMUS, totalitarian movement led by Adolf
Hitler as head of the Nazi
Party (q.v.) in Germany.
In its intense nationalism, mass appeal, and dictatorial rule, National
Socialism shared many elements with Italian Fascism.
Nazism, however, was far more extreme both in its ideas and in its practice.
It was home-grown in Germany and shaped by the unique personality of Hitler.
National Socialism had its
peculiarly German roots. Some can be traced to the Prussian tradition as it
developed under Frederick William I, Frederick the Great, and Otto von
Bismarck. This tradition had always regarded the militant spirit and the
discipline of the Prussian Army as the model for all individual and civic
life. To it was added the tradition of political romanticism, with its sharp
hostility to rationalism and to the principles underlying the French
Revolution, with its emphasis on instinct and the past, and with its
proclamation of the rights of the exceptional individual over all universal
law and rules. These two traditions were later reinforced by the
19th-century adoration of science and of the laws of nature, which seemed to
operate independently of all concepts of good and evil. Further
reinforcements came from such 19th-century intellectual figures as the Comte
de Gobineau, Richard Wagner, and Houston Stewart Chamberlain. These men
greatly influenced early National Socialism with their claims of the racial
and cultural superiority of the "Nordic" (Germanic) peoples over
all other Europeans and all other races.
In addition to these currents in the
German tradition, it should be pointed out that the formation of Hitler's
own intellectual viewpoint was influenced during his youth by specific
Austrian movements that professed various political sentiments, notably
those of pan-Germanic expansionism and anti-Semitism. Much in Hitler's
ferocious nationalism, his contempt of the Slavs, and his hatred of the Jews
can be explained by his bitter experiences as an unsuccessful artist living
a threadbare existence on the streets of Vienna, the capital of the
multi-ethnic Austro-Hungarian Empire.
But this intellectual preparation
would in no way have been sufficient for the growth of National Socialism in
Germany if that nation's defeat in World
War I, with its ensuing disillusionment, pauperization, and
frustration, especially in the lower middle classes, had not paved the way
for Hitler's propaganda.
The Treaty of Versailles
(1919), the formal settlement of World War I drafted without German
participation, alienated many Germans by the harsh monetary and territorial
reparations it imposed on their nation. Resentment of the peace treaty gave
Hitler a starting point. Because Germany agreed to cease hostilities and did
not unconditionally surrender in the Armistice of Nov. 11, 1918, there was a
widespread feeling, particularly in military circles, that Germany's defeat
had been engineered by diplomats at the Versailles meetings. From the
beginning, Hitler's propaganda of revenge for this "traitorous"
act and his call for rearmament appealed to the military circles, which
regarded the peace only as a temporary setback in Germany's expansionist
program. The ruinous inflation of the German currency in 1923 wiped out the
savings of many middle-class households and led to further public alienation
and dissatisfaction.
Hitler added to pan-Germanic
aspirations the almost mystical fanaticism of a faith in the mission of the
German race and the fervour of a social revolutionary gospel. This gospel
was most fully expressed in Hitler's personal testament Mein
Kampf (1925-27), in which he outlined both his practical
aims and his theories of race and propaganda.
Hitler found a powerful ally in the
widespread fear of Bolshevism (Communism), which he exploited, first in
Germany and then on a worldwide scale, posing as the bulwark against
Bolshevism. Thus, he secured the support of many conservative elements that
misunderstood the totalitarian character of his movement.
Hitler's most important individual
contribution to the theory and practice of National Socialism was his deep
understanding of mass psychology and mass propaganda in the contemporary
world. He stressed the fact that all propaganda must hold its intellectual
level at the capacity of the least intelligent of those at whom it is
directed, and that its content of truth does not count compared with the
only valid criterion, that of success. According to Hitler:
It is part of a great leader's
genius to make even widely separated adversaries appear as if they belonged
to but one category, because among weakly and undecided characters the
recognition of various enemies all too easily marks the beginning of doubt
of one's own rightness.
Hitler found this common denominator
in the Jews, whom he
identified with both Bolshevism and a kind of cosmic evil. The Jews were to
be discriminated against not according to their religion but according to
their "race." National Socialism declared the Jews, whatever their
educational and social development, to be forever fundamentally different
from and inimical to Germans.
National Socialism attempted to
reconcile conservative, nationalist ideology with socially radical doctrine.
In so doing, it became a profoundly revolutionary movement, mostly in a
negative sense. It rejected rationalism, liberalism and democracy, the rule
of law, human rights, and all movements of international cooperation and
peace. It stressed instead instinct, the subordination of the individual to
the state, and the necessity of blind and unswerving obedience to leaders
appointed from above. It also stressed the inequality of men and races and
the right of the strong to rule the weak. It sought to purge or suppress
competing political, religious, and social institutions and advanced an
ethic of hardness and ferocity; it partly destroyed class distinctions by
drawing into the movement misfits and failures from all social classes.
Totalitarianism
and expansionism.
Working from these principles, Adolf
Hitler was able to carry his party from its small beginnings in a beer
cellar in Munich to a dominant position in world politics 20 years later.
The Nazi Party originated in 1919 and was led by Hitler from 1920 onward.
The party came to power in Germany in 1933 and governed by totalitarian
methods until 1945, when Germany was defeated and occupied by the Allies at
the close of World War II.
The history of National Socialism
after 1934 can be divided into two parts of about equal length. The years
between 1934 and 1939 were used to establish the full control of all phases
of life in Germany by the party. During these years Hitler and his movement
gained the support and even the enthusiasm of a majority of the German
population. Many Germans had grown weary of the party conflicts, economic
and political instability, and in general the disorderly freedom that
characterized the last years of the Weimar Republic. They welcomed the
strong, decisive, and apparently effective government provided by the Nazis.
After 1934 the endless ranks of Germany's unemployed rapidly dwindled as the
jobless were put to work in extensive public-works projects and in rapidly
multiplying armaments factories. Germans were swept up in this orderly,
intensely purposeful mass movement bent on restoring their country to its
dignity, pride, and grandeur and to first place on the European stage.
Economic recovery from the effects of the Great Depression and the forceful
assertion of German nationalism were thus the key factors in National
Socialism's appeal to the German population. Finally, Hitler's continuous
string of diplomatic successes and foreign conquests from 1934 through the
early years of World War II secured the unqualified support of most Germans,
including many who had previously been opposed to him.
But National Socialism also
maintained its power by coercion and mass manipulation. The Nazi regime kept
up a perpetual outpouring of propaganda through all cultural and
informational media. Its rallies, insignia, and ubiquitous uniformed cadres
were intended to impart an aura of omnipotence. The underside of its
propaganda machine was its apparatus of terror, which centred in its secret
police and concentration camps. It fanned and focused German anti-Semitism
to make the Jew a symbol of all that was hated and feared. By means of
deceptive rhetoric the party portrayed the Jew as the enemy of all classes
of society.
The principal instrument of control
was the unification of all the police, security, and SS organizations under
the direction of Heinrich Himmler
and his chief lieutenant, Reinhard
Heydrich. Opposition to the regime was broken either by outright
terror or, more frequently, by the all-pervading fear of possible
repression. All opponents of the regime were declared enemies of the state
and of the people. An elaborate web of informers--often members of the
family or intimate friends--imposed utmost caution on all expressions and
activities. Justice was no longer recognized as objective but was completely
subordinated to the alleged needs and interests of the "people."
In addition, however, to the now-debased methods of the normal judicial
process, special detention camps were erected. In these camps the SS
exercised supreme authority and introduced a system of sadistic brutality
unknown in modern times and by far surpassing anything known in that respect
in Fascist Italy or Communist Russia.
The years between 1938 and 1945
witnessed the attempt to expand and apply the Nazi system to territories
outside the German Reich. This attempt was confined, in 1938, to lands
inhabited by a German-speaking population. In 1939 began the subjugation of
non-German-speaking nationalities to the totalitarian Nazi police state.
When Germany started World War II,
it came as the logical outcome of Hitler's plans. Thus, Hitler's first years
were spent in preparing the Germans for the approaching struggle for world
control and in forging that instrument which would enable Germany to
establish its military and industrial superiority and thereby fulfill its
ambitions. With mounting diplomatic and military successes, the aims grew in
quick progression. The first aim was to unite all people of German descent
within their historic homeland on the basis of
"self-determination." The next step foresaw the creation of a Grosswirtschaftsraum
("large economic unified space") or a Lebensraum ("living space") through the military conquest
of Poland and other Slavic nations to the east. Thereby the Germans would
acquire sufficient soil to become economically self-sufficient and
militarily impregnable. There, the German master race, or Herrenvolk, would rule over a hierarchy of subordinate peoples and
organize and exploit them with ruthlessness and efficiency. The initial
success of that plan in the military campaigns of 1939-41 widened it into
the vision of a hemispheric order that would embrace all of Europe, western
Asia, and Africa and finally of an order that would establish worldwide
domination of National Socialism.
These extravagant hopes came to an
end with Germany's defeat in 1945, after almost six years of war. To a
certain extent World War II had repeated the pattern of World War I: great
initial German military successes, the forging of a large-scale coalition
against Germany as the result of German ambitions and behaviour, the loss of
the war because of German overreaching and conduct. National Socialism as a
mass movement effectively ended on April 30, 1945, when Adolf Hitler
committed suicide to avoid falling into the hands of Soviet troops
completing the occupation of Berlin. Out of the ruins of National Socialist
Germany there arose a divided and occupied Germany. Though a number of
Germans remained faithful to National Socialism even after Hitler's
downfall, and though there were a few attempts made to reorganize National
Socialist groups in West Germany, the political and mental climate there was
not favourable to it.
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