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| Mo-tzu, Pinyin MOZU, original name MO TI, also spelled MOTZE, MOTSE, or MICIUS (b. 470? BC, China--d. 391?, China), Chinese philosopher whose fundamental doctrine of universal love challenged Confucianism for several centuries and became the basis of a religious movement known as Mohism.
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¹¬ÀÚ (Ùøí), (º´)Mozu (¿þ)Motzu. Motse, Motze, Micius·Îµµ ¾¸. BC
470(?)~BC 391(?).
Áß±¹ÀÇ Ã¶ÇÐÀÚ.
º»¸íÀº ¹¬Àû(Ùøîá). º¸ÆíÀû »ç¶û, Áï °â¾Ö(ÌÂäñ)¸¦ ±âº» À̳äÀ¸·Î »ï´Â ±×ÀÇ Ã¶ÇÐÀº ¼ö¹é ³â µ¿¾È À¯Çаú ¸Â¼¹°í
¹¬°¡(ÙøÊ«)¶ó°í ºÎ¸£´Â Á¾±³¿îµ¿ÀÇ Åä´ë°¡ µÇ¾ú´Ù.
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Life.
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»ý¾Ö
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| Born a few years after Confucius' death, Mo-tzu was raised in a period when the feudal hierarchy instituted at the beginning of the Chou dynasty (12th or 11th century BC to 255 BC) was swiftly disintegrating and China was divided into small, constantly warring, feudal states. He thus confronted the problem that faced all thinkers in 5th-century BC China: how to bring political and social order out of chaos.
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| According to tradition, Mo-tzu was originally a follower of the teachings of Confucius, until he became convinced that Confucianism laid too much emphasis on a burdensome code of rituals and too little on religious teaching, at which time Mo-tzu decided to go his own way. Confucius, from all accounts, was aristocratic by temperament and orientation and dreamed of a return of the calm and peaceful days of pomp and splendour at the beginning of the Chou dynasty. Mo-tzu, on the other hand, was drawn to the common people and looked much further back to a life of primitive simplicity and straightforwardness in human relations. Mo-tzu's life, however, resembled that of Confucius in many important respects. He was widely read and well versed in the tradition of the Chinese Classics. Except for a brief period when he held public office, Mo-tzu spent most of his life traveling from one feudal state to another in the hope of meeting a prince who would allow him to put his teachings into practice. In the absence of such a prince, he had to be content with maintaining a school and recommending his disciples for administrative positions. He commanded respect partly because he lived a very simple life and was a teacher who took his own teachings seriously. He not only condemned offensive war but also journeyed to distant states to prevent the outbreak of a war whenever he heard of such a possibility. (see also
pacifism)
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| The Mo-tzu, the principal work left by Mo-tzu and his followers, contains the essence of his political, ethical, and religious teachings. The gist of it is found in the three sets of chapters of its second section, which give an overview of the 10 major tenets: exaltation of the virtuous, identification with the superior, universal love, condemnation of offensive war, economy of expenditures, simplicity in funerals, will of heaven, on ghosts, denunciation of music as a wasteful activity, and antifatalism. Since Mohism split into three schools after Mo-tzu's death, the three sets of chapters may well represent the three sets of texts preserved by the three schools. The other sections of the Mo-tzu might be listed as follows: I, summaries and abstracts of Mo-tzu's teachings; III, discussions on logic and physical sciences; IV, records of Mo-tzu's doings and sayings; V, a manual of military defense.
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Teachings.
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| As a thinker Mo-tzu was distinctive in his insistence on methodology. He insisted that standards of judgment be established, and his criteria may be summarized as the threefold test and the fourfold standard. The threefold test reminded thinkers that the basis, verifiability, and applicability of any proposition must be analyzed; the fourfold standard reminded thinkers that one should always assess the benefits any proposition could bring to the country and the people. Benefits were defined as enrichment of the poor, increase of the population, removal of danger, and regulation of disorder. To Mo-tzu the tests and standards were indispensable. Generalizing further, Mo-tzu declared that, before anything could be said to be good, it was necessary first to demonstrate what it was good for.
The cornerstone of Mo-tzu's system was universal love. If the world is in chaos, he said, it is owing to man's selfishness and partiality, and the prescribed cure--in striking parallel with Christianity--is that "partiality should be replaced by universality," for, "when everyone regards the states and cities of others as he regards his own, no one will attack the others' state or seize the others' cities." The same principle was to be applied to the welfare of the family and of the individual. The peace of the world and the happiness of humanity lie in the practice of universal love. Many objections--its impracticability, its neglect of the special claims of one's parents--were raised against this new doctrine, but Mo-tzu demonstrated that the principle of universal love had in it both utilitarian justification and divine sanction. He spoke of "universal love and mutual profit" in one breath, and he was convinced that this principle was both the way of man and the way of God.
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| Mo-tzu's stand on religion makes him exceptional among Chinese philosophers. His call to the people was for them to return to the faith of their fathers. He might be said to be a revivalist, a champion of religious orthodoxy with a personal god. To Mo-tzu, there is heaven, heaven has a will, and this will of Heaven is to be obeyed by man and accepted as the unifying standard of human thought and action: "What is the will of Heaven that is to be obeyed? It is to love all the people in the world universally." Heaven not only "desires righteousness and abominates unrighteousness" but also metes out reward and punishment accordingly. The system of Mo-tzu, with its gospel of universal love and the ascetic discipline as exemplified by his own life, soon after the master's death, was embodied in an organized church with a succession of Elder Masters and a considerable body of devotees. The religion prospered for several generations before completely disappearing. The teachings of Mo-tzu, however, continued to be held in high respect for several centuries. Down to the beginning of the 2nd century BC, writers referred to Confucianism and Mohism in one breath as the two leading schools of thought. But from that time, Mohism suddenly disappeared from the intellectual scene. Critics have generally agreed in admiring the high-minded character of Mo-tzu himself but considered his teachings overdemanding and contrary to human nature. It was not until the 20th century that Mo-tzu was rediscovered and his teachings reappraised. (Y.P.M.)
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Mohism
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| Mohism, also spelled MOISM, school of Chinese philosophy founded by Mo-tzu (q.v.) in the 5th century BC. This philosophy challenged the dominant Confucian ideology until about the 3rd century BC. Mo-tzu taught the necessity for individual piety and submission to the will of heaven, or Shang-ti (the Lord on High), and deplored the Confucian emphasis on rites and ceremonies as a waste of government funds. (see also Confucianism)
In contrast to the Confucian moral ideal of jen ("humanity," or "benevolence"), which differentiated the special love for one's parents and family from the general love shown to fellowmen, the Mohists advocated the practice of "universal love," that is, a love without distinctions. The Confucianists, in particular Mencius, bitterly attacked the Mohist concept of universal love because it challenged the basis of Confucian family harmony, which was in fact and theory the foundation for the social harmony of the Confucian state.
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jen
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ÀÎ(ìÒ)
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jen, in Confucian philosophy, one of the most fundamental of all virtues, variously translated as humaneness, warmheartedness, or benevolence. Before Confucius' time jen was understood as the kindness of rulers to their subjects. It was gradually broadened to mean benevolence, still a particular virtue but no longer restricted to rulers. Confucius changed it to connote perfect virtue, which includes all particular virtues and applies to all men. Mencius and the Doctrine of the Mean went on to say that "jen is jen"--that is, jen is the distinguishing characteristic of man. During the Han period, it was generally interpreted as love, and Han Yü in the T'ang period stressed it as love for all mankind.
Under the influence of Buddhism, which extended its compassion to include all things, the Neo-Confucianists of the Sung and Ming dynasties similarly extended jen to mean "forming one body with Heaven, Earth, and all things." This thought was common to both the rationalistic Ch'eng-Chu and the idealistic Lu-Wang schools. Some Sung Neo-Confucianists, however, took jen to be a state of consciousness. Chu Hsi called it "the character of the mind and the principle of love," and Wang Yang-ming equated it with the "clear character" of innate knowledge.
All these were too quietistic and too Buddhistic for the 17th- and 18th-century Neo-Confucianists, who went back to an early Han commentary on an ancient classic that defines jen as "people living together." The new emphasis was on the social and active aspects of jen. All Neo-Confucianists agreed, however, that jen, or humanity, is a moral quality imparted by Heaven, and, since the "great characteristic" of Heaven and Earth is to produce and to reproduce, so jen is characterized by production and reproduction; that is to say, it is life-affirming and life-giving, not only active but creative. Under the influence of Western science in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, modern Confucianists likened jen to electricity and ether, a dynamic force and an all-pervasive substance.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY.
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- Yi-pao Mei (I-pao Mei), Motse, the Neglected Rival of Confucius (1934, reprinted 1973), is a general study of the man and his age, his works, and his teachings, with an extensive bibliography.
- Àú¼
- ÂüÀ¸·Î Èò °ÍÀº ¶§¹¯¾î º¸Àδ٠: ¹¬ÀÚ ¿Ü, Á¤Ã¶ ¿ª, ¿À´Ã,
1991
- ¹¬ÀÚ : ¹¬ÀÚ, ±èÇÐÁÖ ¿ª, ¹ÎÀ½»ç, 1988
- ¹¬ÀÚ(Çö¾Ï½Å¼ 23) : ¹¬ÀÚ, ÀÌ¿ø¼· ¿ªÁÖ, Çö¾Ï»ç, 1970
- ¿¬±¸¼
- ¹¬ÀÚ-¹¬ÀÚÀÇ »ç»ó°ú ¹¬°¡Áý´Ü(´ë¿ìÇмúÃѼ
Àι®»çȸ°úÇÐ 32) : ±èÇÐÁÖ, ¹ÎÀ½»ç, 1988
- ¹¬ÀÚ»ç»óÀÇ Ã¼°èÀû ÀÌÇØ ¡´Àι®°úÇבּ¸¡µ 20 : À⵿̱,
¼º±Õ°ü´ëÇб³ Àι®°úÇבּ¸¼Ò, 1990
- ¹¬ÀÚÀÇ ºñÀ¯(Þªêã)Àû ¼º°Ý ¡´Áß±¹Çк¸¡µ 28 : ±èÇÐÁÖ,
Çѱ¹Áß±¹ÇÐȸ, 1988
- ¹¬ÀÚÀÇ »çȸ°³Çõ»ç»ó ¡´Çѱ¹¹æ¼ÛÅë½Å´ëÇÐ³í¹®Áý¡µ 5 :
À̵¿»ï, Çѱ¹¹æ¼ÛÅë½Å´ëÇÐ, 1986
- Ùøíò±Ì¸ßöÙÍ : åñÖÄÜç, ÓæØ½ùÊßæßöÏÑ, ÓæÝÁ, 1969
- ÙøíæÚϼ : ì°áÉÍß, úÞÓÛùÊê½êÅÊÊÞä, ÓæÝÁ, 1968
- ÙøùÊê¹×µ : Û°â£õ¢, ñéü¤ßöÏÑ, 1936
- ìÑ×¾äñªÈøÁûúªËªÄª¤ªÆªÎÓßü¥-ÙøíªÎÞÖßÌ ¡´ð³íÛÝÊ«¡µ
: ø¯õÀÙòâ§, äÛ÷îßöïÁ, 1961
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