Chinese philosophy
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Chinese philosophy,
the thought of Chinese culture, from earliest times to the present. The keynote
in Chinese philosophy is humanism: man and his
society have occupied, if not monopolized, the attention of Chinese philosophers
throughout the ages. Ethical and political discussions have overshadowed any
metaphysical speculation. It must quickly be added, however, that this humanism
does not imply any indifference to a supreme power or to Nature. Instead, the
general conclusion represented in Chinese philosophy is that of the unity of man
and Heaven. This spirit of synthesis has characterized the entire history of
Chinese philosophy.
During the transition from the Shang
dynasty (18th-12th century BC) to the Chou
dynasty, China was changing from a tribal to a feudal society and from
the Bronze Age to the Iron Age. A new economy and a new society required new
tools and new talents. The Shang people had prayed to their ancestors for the
solution of their problems, but the Chou people turned to man, though they
honoured their ancestors no less than the Shang people did. Prayers for rain,
for example, gradually gave place to irrigation. Man was in the ascendency. The
Shang people had believed in Ti, the tribal
"Lord," who was the greatest ancestor and the supreme deity who
protected them in battles, sanctioned their undertakings, and sent them rewards
and punishments. During the Chou, however, Ti was gradually supplanted by Heaven
( T'ien) as the supreme spiritual reality. Its
anthropomorphic (or man-patterned) character decreased, and its wishes were now
expressed not in unpredictable whims but in the Mandate of Heaven ( T'ien
Ming). This mandate was absolute and constant, beyond man's control. In
time, however, as man grew in importance, it was felt that rewards and
punishments depended on man's virtue, for "Heaven is always kind to the
virtuous." Thus, man's virtue became the determining factor; man could now
control his own destiny (ming).
Religious sacrifices continued to play a great role in the lives of the people;
the meaning of sacrifice, however, was changing from a magical to an ethical
one--that is, from ways to placate spiritual beings to pure expressions of
reverence. It was in this atmosphere that the so-called Hundred
Schools of thought emerged (6th-3rd century BC).
All of the Hundred Schools arose in
response to practical conditions. Their philosophers were either government
officials or scholars, traveling from one feudal state to another and offering
ideas for social reform. Expressing their ideas in conversations, official
documents, or short treatises, they set the pattern for later philosophers.
The existential character of Chinese
philosophy has created the erroneous impression, however, that it is purely
ethical and social and devoid of metaphysics. Though seemingly random and
unsystematic, the philosophy of every school was the result of years of serious
thinking and formed a coherent and logical whole. It was in each instance built
on definite concepts about man and Heaven, whether the latter was interpreted as
the Supreme Being or simply as Nature.
Historically, Chinese philosophy has
gone through four periods: (1) the classical, (2) the Neo-Taoist and Buddhist,
(3) the Neo-Confucian, and (4) the modern. In the classical period (6th-3rd
century BC), the chief concepts were Tao ("the Way"), te ("virtue"), jen ("humanity,"
"love"), i
("righteousness"), t'ien
("heaven"), and yin-yang
(cosmic elements of tranquility and activity, or weakness and strength,
respectively). Every school had its own Way, but the Way of Confucius
(551-479 BC) and that of another traditional sage, Lao-tzu
(6th century BC), were the most prominent. To Confucius, Tao
is the Way of man, the Way of ancient sage-kings, and the Way of virtue. To
Lao-tzu, however, Tao is the Way of nature. His concept was so unique that his
school later came to be called the Taoist school. For all schools, Tao possesses
the two aspects of yin and yang,
the Tao endowed in man is his virtue, and the greatest virtues, especially for
the Confucianists, are jen and i. Clearly, some concepts are ethical and others metaphysical.
In the Neo-Taoist
and Buddhist period (3rd-9th century AD), there
was a radical turn to strictly metaphysical concepts. Going beyond Lao-tzu's
characterization of Tao as Nonbeing, the Neo-Taoists concentrated on the
question of whether Ultimate Reality is Being or Nonbeing and whether the
principle (li) underlying a thing was
universal or particular. Under their influence, early Chinese Buddhist
philosophers directed their attention chiefly to Being and Nonbeing.
Subsequently, Buddhist schools introduced from India were divided into
corresponding categories, viz., schools of Being and schools of Nonbeing. The
question of universality and particularity, or of one and many, led to the
development of truly Chinese Buddhist schools, whose concern was the
relationship between principle, which combines all things as one, and facts,
which differentiate things into the many.
In the Neo-Confucian
period (11th-19th century), the influence of Buddhism and Taoism
prompted Confucianism to find metaphysical and epistemological foundations for
its ethics. Two basic concepts of Neo-Confucianism are nature and
principle--nature, especially human nature, because Confucianism was still
primarily concerned with man, and principle because the Neo-Confucianists
rejected the Buddhist void and Taoist Nonbeing as negative and mystical,
substituting their own metaphysical principle, li
("law," "reason"), the positive, concrete, and rational laws
that form the universe and that are always good. According to Neo-Confucianism's
greatest proponent, Chu Hsi (1130-1200), li
is the essence that makes things what they are. Human nature is the li
that is universal among all people. Coupled to this universal essence is ch'i
("air," "breath"), the particular material force that makes
each person unique. Ch'i obscures
human nature and its inherent goodness; therefore, metaphysical speculation, or
inquiry into the laws of human nature and of the universe, is for the
Neo-Confucianist the path of ethical conduct.
It is interesting to note that these
three periods represent a dialectical movement: the classical period was
concerned chiefly with mundane problems; the Neo-Taoist and Buddhist period was
concerned with the transcendent; and the Neo-Confucian period was a synthesis of
the two.
The modern period (20th century), on the
other hand, does not seem to conform to any previous pattern. Twentieth-century
Chinese philosophy went from westernization, through a reconstruction of
traditional philosophy, to the triumph of Marxism. In the second and third
decades, the works of Darwin, Spencer, and others were translated, and the
doctrines of Haeckel, Kropotkin, Nietzsche, Schopenhauer, Bergson, Eucken,
Descartes, and James, in addition to Plato, Kant, and Hegel, were introduced,
each with his special advocates. Later, Whitehead, Royce, Carnap, and others
were promoted by earnest if small groups. This movement revealed to the Chinese
new philosophical vistas in metaphysics, logic, and epistemology (theory of
knowledge). The general tone was scientific, positivistic, and pragmatic. Of all
Western systems, the most influential was Pragmatism,
introduced and promoted by Hu Shih (1891-1962),
leader of the intellectual revolution of 1917. In the "polemic of science
versus life" in the 1920s, leading Chinese intellectuals debated the
question as to whether or not science could form the basis of a philosophy of
life. The debate served to question the supremacy of Western philosophy, which,
as understood by the Chinese, was regarded as essentially scientific as opposed
to metaphysical.
In contemporary China, Marxism is the
official philosophy. Marxist thought had been growing in China since the
mid-1920s, and by the time of the establishment of the People's Republic in
1949, it had gone through Leninism to Maoism. The official ideology does not
prohibit the study of traditional Chinese philosophy but has subjected it to
critical evaluation and severe criticism. From 1957 on, many debates were
carried on and many books and journals published. One topic of debate centred on
the nature of the history of Chinese philosophy. Though there was no unanimity
of opinion, the "correct" viewpoint was that the history of Chinese
philosophy is but a part of the world history of philosophy and as such is a
history of the struggle between Materialism and Idealism. The conflict between
the theories of the original good and evil character of human nature, the
opposition between principle and material force, the contradiction between Being
and Nonbeing, and the conflict between names and actuality were given as
evidence of this continuous struggle. As such, the history of Chinese philosophy
is but the development of Marxism-Leninism in Chinese history. That part of
China's philosophical heritage that is Materialistic and possesses a class
nature must be continued and promoted.
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- Áß±¹Ã¶ÇÐ
- Àü¹Ý¡¤Åë»ç
- Áß±¹Ã¶ÇÐÀÇ Á¤½Å - ½Å¿øµµ
: ù§éÒÕµ,
°û½Åȯ ¿ª, ¼±¤»ç,
1993
- Áß±¹Ã¶ÇÐ ¹üÁÖ¹ßÀü»ç - õµµÆí
: í娡Ùþ,
Á¤ÀÎÀç ¿ª,
¼±¤»ç, 1993
- Áß±¹À±¸®»ç»ó¿¬±¸ : íåÓàÒ´,
Á¶Çö¼÷ ¿ª, ¼±¤»ç, 1993
- Áß±¹»ç»ó»ç : µ¿°æ´ëÇÐ Áß±¹Ã¶Çבּ¸½Ç,
Á¶°æ¶õ ¿ª,
µ¿³è, 1992
- Áß±¹ÀÇ º¯Áõ¹ý»ç»ó(ÇмúÃѼ
23) : Á¶´öº»,
ÃÖÀ±¼ö ¿ª,
À̷аú ½Çõ, 1991
- Áß±¹Ã¶ÇÐÀÇ ÀÌÇØ : Áß±¹Ã¶Çבּ¸È¸ Æí,
¿Ü°èÃâÆÇ»ç, 1991
- µ¿¾çöÇÐÀÇ ÀÌÇØ(±îÄ¡µ¿¾çÇÐ
9) : ñÓÒ®ðÎó,
À̳²Èñ ¿ª,
񌎭, 1991
- Áß±¹ÀÇ »ç»ó : éÔå¯ôÉìÑ,
¹ÚÈñÁØ ¿ª, ´ë¿ø»ç, 1991
- Áß±¹»ç»ó»ç(µ¿¾ç°íÀü½Å¼
20) :, ¹ÚÀϺÀ Æí¿ª,
À°¹®»ç,
1990
- Áß±¹Ã¶Çлç : ù§éÒÕµ,
Á¤ÀÎÀç ¿ª, Çü¼³ÃâÆÇ»ç, 1990
- Áß±¹À±¸®Çлç : óùêªÛÆ,
±è¿ë¼· ¿Ü ¿ª, »õ¹®»ç, 1990
- Áß±¹Ã¶Çлç(±îÄ¡±Û¹æ 46) :
ìòÍ©êï Æí, ÀüÅÿø ¿ª,
񌎭,
1990
- Áß±¹Ã¶Çлç : ý¥èâÒÈ,
¾çÀçÇõ ¿ª, ÀÏ¿ù¼°¢, 1989
- Áß±¹»ç»ó»ç : ÙëÒ®ëùê©,
À̵¿Èñ ¿ª, ¿©°ÃâÆÇ»ç, 1987
- Áß±¹Ã¶Çлç : °¡³ë ³ª¿ÀŰ,
¿ÀÀÎȯ ¿ª, À»À¯¹®È»ç, 1986
- Áß±¹ÀÇ ¼¼°è°ü : C. P. ÇÇÃ÷Á¦¶öµå,
À̺´Èñ ¿ª,
¹ÎÁ·¹®È»ç, 1986
- µ¿¾çÇÐ ¾î¶»°Ô ÇÒ °ÍÀΰ¡? : ±è¿ë¿Á,
Å볪¹«, 1985
- Áß±¹Ã¶ÇÐÀÇ Á¤½Å : °û½Åȯ,
¼þ½Ç´ëÇб³ ÃâÆÇºÎ, 1985
- Áß±¹Ã¶ÇÐÀÇ Àΰ£ÇÐÀû ÀÌÇØ :
òæí¡Üý, Á¤ÀÎÀç ¿ª,
¹ÎÁö»ç,
1985
- Áß±¹Ã¶ÇÐÀÇ Æ¯Áú : ¼ÛÇ×·æ,
µ¿ÈÃâÆÇ°ø»ç, 1983
- Áß±¹»ç»óÀÇ ÀÌÇØ - °øÀڷκÎÅÍ ¸ðÅõ¿¿¡ À̸£±â±îÁö
: H.
G. Å©¸±, À̵¿ÁØ ¿Ü ¿ª,
°æ¹®»ç, 1981
- Áß±¹Ã¶Çлç : Á¤ÀÎÀç,
Çü¼³ÃâÆÇ»ç, 1977
- Áß±¹Ã¶Çлç·áÁý : Á¤ÀÎÀç,
Çü¼³ÃâÆÇ»ç, 1977
- Áß±¹Ã¶Çлê°í : ±èÃæ·Ä,
¹üÇеµ¼, 1977
- ñéÏÐͯîðãæßö îï100Ïé :
Ù¥Óìõó÷úÞä øº¡¤Û¡ú¼, 1967
- ñéÏÐÞÖßÌ÷×ÞÈ îï6Ïé :
ý¥èâÒÈ èâ øº, ìÑÚÅõó÷úÞä,
ÝÁÌÈ,
1949 - 58
- ñéÏÐÞÖßÌ(Ë»ñ¨ÔÔåÇÞÖßÌ2 - 4) :
éÔå¯ïñìéªÛª« øº,
ÔÔÌÈÓÞùÊõó÷úüå, 1966 - 67
- ÞÖß̪ÎÕöÞÈ 2¡¤4¡¤6¡¤11¡¤12 : ø¯õÀÙò⧪۪« Êøáó,
øÁÛíÞä,
1956 - 66
- ÔÔåÇÞÖðÍ îï18Ïé (äÛ÷îîïßö) :
ÙëÒ®ëùê©, äÛ÷îßöïÁ, 1957
- ñéÏÐôÉùÊÞÈ : âå¯òÁýì,
äÛ÷îßöïÁ, 1953
- °í´ë¡¤Áß¼¼¡¤±Ù¼¼
- Áß±¹°í´ëÀÇ ÀÚ¿¬°ü : ҮߣñÚåé,
ÃÖÁ¾¿í ¿Ü ¿ª, ¼±¤»ç,
1993
- Áß±¹°í´ë»ç»ó»ç(±îÄ¡µ¿¾çÇÐ
6) : άØÈå´,
Á¶¼ºÀ» ¿ª,
񌎭, 1991
- Áß±¹°í´ëöÇÐÀÇ ¼¼°è(Á×»ê½Å¼
12) : Ùòê«á³ñ¬ìÑ,
±è±³ºó
¿Ü ¿ª, Á×»ê, 1991
- ÇÑÀ¯¿¡¼ ÁÖÈñ±îÁö - Áß±¹±Ù¼¼À¯°¡Ã¶ÇÐ
: íåÏÖ
,
±è¿ë¼·¡¤ÀåÀ±¼ö °ø¿ª,
Çü¼³ÃâÆÇ»ç, 1991
- Áß±¹°í´ë¿ªÇлç : ÍÔüãÚÅ,
¼þ½Ç´ëÇб³ µ¿¾çöÇÐ½Ç ¿ª,
¼þ½Ç´ëÇб³ ÃâÆÇºÎ, 1990
- Á¦Àڹ鰡 : °¡ÀÌÁÖ°¡ ¼¼ÀÌÄÉŰ,
±è¼®±Ù ¿ª, ±îÄ¡, 1989
- °øÀÚÀÇ »ç»ó : ì÷åÞÓÑ,
¹Îº´»ê ¿ª, Çö¾Ï»ç, 1985
- Áß±¹»ç»óÀÇ ¿ø·ù : Ȳ¿ø±¸,
¿¬¼¼´ëÇб³ ÃâÆÇºÎ, 1976
- ñéÏÐñéᦪÎÞÖß̪ÈÙþûù : ÜØçµÎÃÞÉ øº,
ÌÈÔ´ÓÞùÊìÑÙþΡùÊæÚϼá¶, 1982
- ԳʫªÎÞÖß̪ÈÐìªÎî÷ËÒ(òÐï£ñ§éÓÑÎîïó¢
13á¶â¥) :
òÐï£ñ§éÓÑÎ, äÛ÷îßöïÁ, 1964
- ð³íÛÝÊ« - ñéÏÐͯÓÛªÎÞÖßÌÊ«ª¿ªÁ(äÛ÷îãæßö) :
ø¯õÀÙòâ§,
äÛ÷îßöïÁ, 1961
- òÚùÓÞÖßÌæÚϼ : ÑÑÍÛö½,
ìíÜâùÊâúòÉýéüå, 1960
- ñéÏÐͯÓÛëäåÕçéú¼ÞÖßÌªÎæÚϼ :
á³×ùãáÙ¥, Ë»ÓÈÞä, 1951
- ñéÏÐͯÓÛïÙö½ÞÖßÌ : ñé˰õäÑÎ,
äÛ÷îßöïÁ, 1950
- ±Ù´ë¡¤Çö´ë
- Áß±¹ÀÇ Ã¶Çבּ¸ - Çõ¸í ÈĺÎÅÍ ¹®È´ëÇõ¸í ½Ã±â±îÁö
:
ÙÓéÑ¡¤Ô¶Óìç´
°øÀú, ±è¹®¿ë ¿ª,
À̼º°ú Çö½Ç»ç, 1991
- Áß±¹Çö´ë»ç»ó»ç·Ð(Çö´ë»ç»ó½Å¼
4) : ì°÷Êý§,
¼Õ¼¼Á¦ ¿ª,
±³º¸¹®°í, 1991
- Áß±¹±Ù¼¼Ã¶Çлç : ÀåÀ¯±³,
¼±¤»ç, 1989
- Áß±¹Çö´ëöÇлç(1) : ¿ÕÀ°¹Î,
û³â»ç, 1989
- ÁÖÀÚÇаú ¾ç¸íÇÐ(±îÄ¡Çмú¹®°í
9) : ÓöߣËóó,
±è¼®±Ù¡¤À̱ٿì
°ø¿ª, ±îÄ¡, 1985
- Çö´ëÁß±¹ÀÇ Àΰ£ÀÌÇØ : D. ¸Õ·Î,
±è´öÁß ¿ª, û¾ÆÃâÆÇ»ç,
1982
- ê«îðñéÏÐÐÎÓÛÞÖßÌÞÈ îï6Ïé
: à¤â÷íú øº,
äÛ÷îßöïÁ, 1976 -
77
- ôèÓÛùÊâúËÈÖå ¦¡ ñéÏЪΫë«Í«Ä«µ«ó«¹(ÔÔåÇÙþÍ·) :
åÄÌöõ±, á³å¯ûúí æ»ñ¼,
øÁÛíÞä, 1974
- úÞÓÛñéÏÐÞÖßÌ : ÜØïÌˬâ÷,
ðÄÔ«ï£ÓÞùÊõó÷úÝ», 1955
- ȍ˟
- À¯±³´ë»çÀü : À¯±³´ë»çÀü ÆíÂùÀ§¿øÈ¸ Æí,
¹Ú¿µ»ç, 1990
- µ¿¾ç»ç»ó»çÀü : À¯Á¤±â ÆíÀú,
¿ì¹®´ç, 1965
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