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utopia,
an ideal commonwealth whose inhabitants exist under seemingly perfect
conditions. Hence "utopian" and "utopianism" are words
used to denote visionary reform that tends to be impossibly idealistic.
The word first occurred in Sir
Thomas More's Utopia,
published in Latin as Libellus . . .
de optimo reipublicae statu, deque nova insula Utopia ("Concerning
the highest state of the republic and the new island Utopia"; 1516); it
was compounded by More from the Greek words for "not" (ou)
and "place" (topos) and
thus meant "nowhere." During his embassy to Flanders in 1515, More
wrote Book II of Utopia,
describing a pagan and communist city-state in which the institutions and
policies were entirely governed by reason. The order and dignity of such a
state was intended to provide a notable contrast with the unreasonable
polity of Christian Europe, divided by self-interest and greed for power and
riches, which More then described in Book I, written in England in 1516. The
description of Utopia is put in the mouth of a mysterious traveller, Raphael
Hythloday, in support of his argument that communism is the only cure
against egoism in private and public life. More, in the dialogue, speaks in
favour of mitigation of evil rather than cure, human nature being fallible.
The reader is thus left guessing as to which parts of the brilliant jeu
d'esprit are seriously intended and which are mere paradox.
Written utopias may be practical or
satirical, as well as speculative. Utopias are far older than their name.
Plato's Republic was the model of
many, from More to H.G. Wells. A utopian island occurs in the Sacred
History of Euhemerus (flourished 300 BC), and Plutarch's life of
Lycurgus describes a utopian Sparta. The legend of Atlantis inspired many
utopian myths; but explorations in the 15th century permitted more realistic
settings, and Sir Thomas More associated Utopia
with Amerigo Vespucci. Other utopias that were similar to More's in Humanist
themes were the I mondi (1552) of
Antonio Francesco Doni and La città
felice (1553) of Francesco Patrizi. An early practical utopia was the
comprehensive La città del sole
(written c. 1602) of Tommaso
Campanella (q.v.). Francis
Bacon's New Atlantis (published
1627) was practical in its scientific program but speculative concerning
philosophy and religion. Christian utopian commonwealths were described in Antangil
(1616) by "I.D.M.," Christianopolis
(1619) by Johann Valentin Andreae, and Novae
Solymae libri sex (1648) by Samuel Gott. Puritanism produced many
literary utopias, both religious and secular, notably, The
Law of Freedom . . . (1652), in which Gerrard Winstanley advocated the
principles of the Diggers. The
Common-Wealth of Oceana (1656) by James Harrington argued for the
distribution of land as the condition of popular independence.
In France such works as Gabriel de
Foigny's Terre australe connue
(1676) preached liberty. François Fénelon's Télémaque
(1699) contained utopian episodes extolling the simple life. L'An
2440 by Louis-Sébastien Mercier (1770; Eng. trans., 1772)
anticipated Revolutionary doctrines. G.A. Ellis' New
Britain (1820) and Étienne Cabet's Voyage
en Icarie (1840) were related to experimental communities in the United
States that revealed the limitations of purely economic planning.
Consequently, Bulwer-Lytton, in The Coming Race (1871), invented an essence that eliminated
economics altogether, and William Morris demonstrated his contempt for
economics in News from Nowhere
(1890). Two influential utopias, however, had an economic basis: Looking
Backward, 2000-1887 (1888) by Edward Bellamy (q.v.)
and Freiland (1890; A
Visit to Freeland . . . , 1894) by Theodor Herzka. H.G. Wells, in A
Modern Utopia (1905), returned to speculation.
Many utopias are satires that
ridicule existent conditions rather than offering practical solutions for
them. In this class are Swift's Gulliver's
Travels (1726) and Samuel Butler's Erewhon
(1872). In the 20th century, when the possibility of a planned society
became too imminent, a number of bitterly anti-utopian, or dystopian, novels
appeared. Among these are The Iron
Heel (1907) by Jack London, My
(1924; We, 1925) by Yevgeny
Zamyatin, Brave New World (1932)
by Aldous Huxley, and Nineteen
Eighty-four (1949) by George Orwell. The
Story of Utopias (1922) by Lewis Mumford is an excellent survey.
Concurrent with the literature,
there have also been many attempts by religious groups and political
reformers to establish utopian communities, especially in the Americas. In
the two centuries between 1663 (when some Dutch Mennonites established the
first such communitarian colony in what is now Lewes, Del.) and 1858, some
138 settlements were begun in North America. The first to outlast the
lifetime of its founder was the Ephrata Community (q.v.) established in Pennsylvania in 1732 by some German Pietists.
Other German Pietist settlements were founded by George Rapp (Harmony in
Pennsylvania, Harmony [or Harmonie] in Indiana, and Economy in
Pennsylvania), by the Amana group (in Iowa), and by the Shaker
s (q.v.; 18 villages in
eight states). Some of them pursued celibacy. Other communal religious sects
still flourish; among the largest are the Hutterites, chiefly in the United
States and Canada but having colonies also in Paraguay and England.
One of the first secular communities
was New Harmony, founded in 1825 when the British manufacturer Robert
Owen purchased Harmony, Ind., from the Rappites. It was a cooperative
rather than communist society. Although it foundered, it sponsored the first
kindergarten, the first trade school, the first free library, and the first
community-supported public school in the United States. (see also New
Harmony)
The ideas of the French social
reformer Charles Fourier had a strong influence upon American reformers in
the 1840s, particularly upon the leaders of Brook Farm in Massachusetts.
Between 1841 and 1859, about 28 Fourierist colonies were established in the
United States. The Icarians, followers of Cabet, established ill-fated
communities in Illinois (Nauvoo, formerly settled by Mormons), Missouri,
Iowa, and California.
A unique venture was the Oneida
Community founded in Putney, Vt., by John
Humphrey Noyes in 1841 and moved to Oneida, N.Y., in 1848. The group
practiced "complex marriage," in which all husbands and wives were
shared. Noyes said that Oneida was the continuation of Brook Farm without
its mistakes. He was convinced that socialism was impossible without
religion, and that the "extended" family system would dissolve
selfishness and demonstrate the practicality of this way of life. Children
remained with their mothers until they could walk but were then placed in a
common nursery.
After the American Civil War the
enthusiasm for secular utopian experiments waned. There were some new
settlements in the 1890s, following the publication of such Utopian tracts
as Laurence Gronlund's The Coöperative
Commonwealth (1884) and Bellamy's Looking
Backward, but the impulse had run its course and these latter movements
were soon gathered into the fold of political socialism. The creation of
utopian religious communities continued into the 20th century, but they too
were usually short-lived. The religious colonies, in almost all instances,
were established and maintained by a single powerful personality who was
believed by his disciples to have a singular gift of prophecy or wisdom.
Most of these colonies flourished during the lifetime of the original leader
and then declined slowly after his death. |
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