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federalism,
mode of political organization that unites separate states or other polities
within an overarching political system in
such a way as to allow each to maintain its own fundamental political
integrity. Federal systems do this by requiring that basic policies be made
and implemented through negotiation in some form, so that all the members
can share in making and executing decisions. The political principles that
animate federal systems emphasize the primacy of bargaining and negotiated
coordination among several power centres; they stress the virtues of
dispersed power centres as a means for safeguarding individual and local
liberties.
The various political systems that
call themselves federal differ in many ways. Certain characteristics and
principles, however, are common to all truly federal systems.
First, the federal relationship must
be established or confirmed through a perpetual covenant of union, usually
embodied in a written constitution that outlines the terms by which power is
divided or shared; the constitution can be altered only by extraordinary
procedures. These constitutions are distinctive in being not simply compacts
between rulers and ruled but involving the people, the general government,
and the states constituting the federal union. The constituent states,
moreover, often retain constitution-making rights of their own. (see also constitutional
law )
Second, the political system itself
must reflect the constitution by actually diffusing power among a number of
substantially self-sustaining centres. Such a diffusion of power may be
termed noncentralization. Noncentralization is a way of ensuring in practice
that the authority to participate in exercising political power cannot be
taken away from the general or the state governments without common consent.
(see also decentralization)
A third element of any federal
system is what has been called in the United States territorial democracy.
This has two faces: the use of areal divisions to ensure neutrality and
equality in the representation of the various groups and interests in the
polity and the use of such divisions to secure local autonomy and
representation for diverse groups within the same civil society. Territorial
neutrality has proved highly useful in societies that are changing, allowing
for the representation of new interests in proportion to their strength
simply by allowing their supporters to vote in relatively equal territorial
units. At the same time, the accommodation of very diverse groups whose
differences are fundamental rather than transient by giving them territorial
power bases of their own has enhanced the ability of federal systems to
function as vehicles of political integration while preserving democratic
government. One example of this system may be seen in Canada, which includes
a population of French descent, centred in the province of Quebec. (see also
power,
balance of)
Modern federal systems generally
provide direct lines of communication between the citizenry and all the
governments that serve them. The people may and usually do elect
representatives to all the governments, and all of them may and usually do
administer programs that directly serve the individual citizen.
The existence of those direct lines
of communication is one of the features distinguishing federations from
leagues or confederations. It is usually based on a sense of common
nationality binding the constituent polities and people together. In some
countries this sense of nationality has been inherited, as in Germany, while
in the United States, Argentina, and Australia it had to be at least partly
invented. Canada and Switzerland have had to evolve this sense in order to
hold together strongly divergent nationality groups. In the newly formed
federal systems of India, Malaysia, and Nigeria, the future of federalism is
endangered by the absence of such a common national sense.
Geographic necessity has played a
part in promoting the maintenance of union within federal systems. The
Mississippi Valley in the United States, the Alps in Switzerland, the island
character of the Australian continent, and the mountains and jungles
surrounding Brazil have all been influences promoting unity; so have the
pressures for Canadian union arising from that country's situation on the
border of the United States and the pressures upon the German states
generated by their neighbours to the east and west. In this connection, the
necessity for a common defense against common enemies has stimulated federal
union in the first place and acted to maintain it.
Elements
maintaining noncentralization. The constituent
polities in a federal system must be fairly equal in population and wealth
or else balanced geographically or numerically in their inequalities. In the
United States, each geographic section has included both great and small
states. In Canada, the ethnic differences between the two largest and
richest provinces have prevented them from combining against the others.
Swiss federalism has been supported by the existence of groups of cantons of
different size categories and religiolinguistic backgrounds. Similar
distributions exist in every other successful federal system.
A major reason for the failure of
federal systems has often been a lack of balance among the constituent
polities. In the German federal empire of the late 19th century, Prussia
was so dominant that the other states had little opportunity to provide
national leadership or even a reasonably strong alternative to the policy of
the king and government. During the Soviet era (1917-90/91), the existence
of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic--occupying three-fourths
of the area and containing three-fifths of the population--severely limited
the possibility of authentic federal relationships in that country even if
the Communist system had not.
Successful federal systems have also
been characterized by the permanence of their internal boundaries. Boundary
changes may occur, but such changes are made only with the consent of the
polities involved and are avoided except in extreme situations.
In a few very important cases,
noncentralization is given support through the constitutionally guaranteed
existence of different systems of law in the constituent polities. In the
United States, each state's legal system stems directly and to a certain
extent uniquely from English (and, in one case, French) law, while federal
law occupies only an interstitial position binding the systems of the 50
states together. The resulting mixture of laws keeps the administration of
justice substantially noncentralized, even in federal courts. In Canada, the
existence of common-law and civil-law systems side by side has contributed
to French-Canadian cultural survival. Federal systems more often provide for
modification of national legal codes by the subnational governments to meet
special local needs, as in Switzerland.
The point has often been made that
in a truly federal system the constituent polities must have substantial
influence over the formal or informal constitutional-amending process. Since
constitutional changes are often made without formal constitutional
amendment, the position of the constituent polities must be such that
serious changes in the political order can be made only by the decision of
dispersed majorities that reflect the areal division of powers. Federal
theorists have argued that this is important for popular government as well
as for federalism.
Noncentralization is also
strengthened by giving the constituent polities guaranteed representation in
the national legislature and often by giving them a guaranteed role in the
national political process. The latter is guaranteed in the written
constitutions of the United States and Switzerland. In other systems, such
as those of Canada and Latin America, the constituent polities have acquired
certain powers of participation, and these have become part of the unwritten
constitution.
Perhaps the most important single
element in the maintenance of federal noncentralization is the existence of
a noncentralized party system. Noncentralized parties initially develop out
of the constitutional arrangements of the federal compact, but once they
have come into existence they tend to be self-perpetuating and to function
as decentralizing forces in their own right. The United States and Canada
provide examples of the forms that a noncentralized party system may take.
In the two-party system of the United
States, the parties are actually coalitions of the state parties (which may
in turn be dominated by specific local party organizations) and function as
national units only for the quadrennial presidential elections or for
purposes of organizing the national Congress. Party financing and decision
making are dispersed either among the state organizations or among widely
divergent nationwide factions. (see also political
party)
In Canada, on the other hand, the
parliamentary form of government, with its requirements of party
responsibility, means that on the national plane considerably more party
cohesiveness must be maintained simply in order to gain and hold power.
There has been a fragmentation of the parties along regional or provincial
lines. The party victorious in national elections is likely to be the one
able to expand its provincial electoral bases temporarily to national
proportions.
Federal nations with less-developed
party systems frequently gain some of the same decentralizing effects
through what the Latin Americans call caudillismo--in
which power is diffused among strong local leaders operating in the
constituent polities. Caudillistic noncentralization apparently exists also
in Nigeria and Malaysia.
Elements
maintaining the federal principle. Several
devices found in federal systems serve to maintain the federal principle
itself. Two of these are of particular importance.
The maintenance of federalism
requires that the nation and its constituent polities each have
substantially complete governing institutions of their own, with the right
to modify those institutions unilaterally within limits set by the compact.
Both separate legislative and separate administrative institutions are
necessary.
The contractual sharing of public
responsibilities by all governments in the system appears to be a central
characteristic of federalism. Sharing, broadly conceived, includes common
involvement in policy making, financing, and administration. Sharing may be
formal or informal; in federal systems, it is usually contractual. The
contract is used as a legal device to enable governments to engage in joint
action while remaining independent entities. Even where there is no formal
arrangement, the spirit of federalism tends to infuse a sense of contractual
obligation.
Federal systems or systems strongly
influenced by federal principles have been among the most stable and
long-lasting of polities. But the successful operation of federal systems
requires a particular kind of political environment, one that is conducive
to popular government and has the requisite traditions of political
cooperation and self-restraint. Beyond this, federal systems operate best in
societies with sufficient homogeneity of fundamental interests to allow a
great deal of latitude to local government and to permit reliance upon
voluntary collaboration. The use of force to maintain domestic order is even
more inimical to the successful maintenance of federal patterns of
government than to other forms of popular government. Federal systems are
most successful in societies that have the human resources to fill many
public offices competently and the material resources to afford a measure of
economic waste as part of the price of liberty. |
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