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Kropotkin, Peter
Alekseyevich (b. Dec. 21 [Dec. 9, Old Style], 1842,
Moscow, Russia--d. Feb. 8, 1921, Dmitrov, near Moscow), Russian revolutionary
and geographer, the foremost theorist of the anarchist
movement. Although he achieved renown in a number of different fields, ranging
from geography and zoology to sociology and history, he shunned material
success for the life of a revolutionist.
Kropotkin was the son of Prince
Aleksey Petrovich Kropotkin and was educated in the exclusive Corps of Pages
in St. Petersburg. For a year he served as an aide to Tsar Alexander II and,
from 1862 to 1867, as an army officer in Siberia,
where, apart from his military duties, he studied animal life and engaged in
geographic exploration. On the basis of his observations he elaborated a
theory of the structural lines of mountain ranges that revised the cartography
of eastern Asia. He also contributed to knowledge of the glaciation of Asia
and Europe during the Ice Age.
Kropotkin's findings won him immediate
recognition and opened the way to a distinguished scientific career. But in
1871 he refused the secretaryship of the Russian Geographical Society and,
renouncing his aristocratic heritage, dedicated his life to the cause of
social justice. During his Siberian service he had already begun his
conversion to anarchism--the theory that all forms of government should be
abolished--and in 1872 a visit to the Swiss watchmakers of the Jura Mountains,
whose voluntary associations of mutual support won his admiration, confirmed
him in his libertarian beliefs. On his return to Russia he joined a
revolutionary group that disseminated propaganda among the workers and
peasants of St. Petersburg and Moscow. Caught in a police dragnet, he was
imprisoned in 1874 but made a sensational escape two years later, fleeing to
western Europe, where his name soon became revered in radical circles. The
next few years he spent mostly in Switzerland until he was expelled at the
demand of the Russian government after the assassination of Tsar Alexander II
by revolutionaries in 1881. He moved to France but was arrested and locked up
for three years on trumped-up charges of sedition. Released in 1886, he
settled in England, where he remained for the next 30 years, until the
Revolution of 1917 allowed him to return to his native country.
During his long exile Kropotkin wrote
a series of influential books--the most important were Paroles d'un révolté (1885; "Words of a
Rebel"), In Russian and French
Prisons (1887), The Conquest of
Bread (1892), Fields, Factories and
Workshops (1899), Memoirs of a
Revolutionist (1899), Mutual Aid (1902),
Russian Literature (1905), and The
Great French Revolution 1789-1793 (1909)--in which he set forth his
libertarian philosophy. His aim, as he often remarked, was to put anarchism on
a scientific basis. In Mutual Aid, which
is widely regarded as his masterpiece, he argued that, despite the Darwinist
concept of the survival of the fittest, cooperation rather than conflict is
the chief factor in the evolution of species.
Providing abundant examples, he showed that sociability is a dominant feature
at every level of the animal world. Among humans, too, he found that mutual
aid has been the rule rather than the exception. He traced the evolution of
voluntary cooperation from the primitive tribe, peasant village, and medieval
commune to a variety of modern associations--trade unions, learned societies,
the Red Cross--that have continued to practice mutual support despite the rise
of the coercive bureaucratic state. The trend of modern history, he believed,
was pointing back toward decentralized, nonpolitical, cooperative societies in
which men could develop their creative faculties without interference from
rulers, priests, or soldiers. (see also Index:
"Mutual Aid: A Factor in Evolution")
In his theory of "anarchist communism,"
according to which private property and unequal incomes would give place to
the free distribution of goods and services, Kropotkin took a major step in
the evolution of anarchist economic thought. For the principle of wages he
substituted the principle of needs. Each person would be the judge of his own
requirements, taking from the common storehouse whatever he deemed necessary,
whether or not he contributed a share of the labour. Kropotkin envisioned a
society in which people would do both manual and mental work, both in industry
and in agriculture. Members of each cooperative community would work from
their 20s to their 40s, four or five hours a day sufficing for a comfortable
life, and the division of labour would yield to a variety of pleasant jobs,
resulting in the sort of integrated, organic existence that had prevailed in
the medieval city.
To prepare people for this happier
life, Kropotkin pinned his hopes on the education of the young. To achieve an
integrated society he called for an education that would cultivate both mental
and manual skills. Due emphasis was to be placed on the humanities and on
mathematics and science, but, instead of being taught from books alone,
children were to receive an active outdoor education and learn by doing and
observing at first hand, a recommendation that has been widely endorsed by
modern educational theorists. Drawing on his own experience of prison life,
Kropotkin also advocated a thorough modification of the penal system. Prisons,
he said, were "schools of crime" that, far from reforming the
offender, subjected him to brutalizing punishments and hardened him in his
criminal ways. In the future anarchist world, antisocial behaviour would be
dealt with not by laws and prisons but by human understanding and the moral
pressure of the community. (see also education,
philosophy of, penology)
Kropotkin combined the qualities of a
scientist and moralist with those of a revolutionary organizer and
propagandist. For all his mild benevolence, he condoned the use of violence in
the struggle for freedom and equality, and, during his early years as an
anarchist militant, he was among the most vigorous exponents of
"propaganda by the deed"--acts of insurrection to supplement oral
and written propaganda to awaken the rebellious instincts of the people. He
was the principal founder of both the English and Russian anarchist movements
and exerted a strong influence on the movements in France, Belgium, and
Switzerland. But he alienated many of his comrades by supporting the Allied
powers during World War I. His action, though prompted by the fear that German
authoritarianism might prove fatal to social progress, violated the
antimilitarist tradition and touched off bitter polemics that nearly destroyed
the movement for which he had laboured nearly half a century.
Events, however, took a brighter turn
with the outbreak of the Russian Revolution in
1917. Kropotkin, now in his 75th year, hastened to return to his homeland.
When he arrived in Petrograd (now Saint Petersburg) in June 1917, after 40
years in exile, he was greeted warmly and was offered the post of minister of
education in the provisional government, a post he brusquely declined. Yet his
hopes for a libertarian future were never brighter, for 1917 saw the
spontaneous appearance of communes and soviets--soldiers' and workers'
councils--that he felt might form the basis of a stateless society.
With the Bolshevik seizure of power in
October 1917, however, his earlier enthusiasm turned to bitter disappointment.
"This buries the revolution," he remarked to a friend. The Bolsheviks,
he said, have shown how the revolution was not
to be made--that is, by authoritarian rather than libertarian methods.
Kropotkin's last years were devoted chiefly to a history of ethics, which he
was never to finish. He died at the village of Dmitrov near Moscow in 1921.
His funeral, attended by tens of thousands of admirers, was the last occasion
when the black flag of anarchism was paraded through the Russian capital.
Kropotkin's life exemplified the high
ethical standard and the combination of thought and action that he preached
throughout his writings. He displayed none of the egotism, duplicity, or lust
for power that marred the image of so many other revolutionaries. Because of
this he was admired not only by his own comrades but by many for whom the
label of anarchist meant little more than the dagger and the bomb. The French
writer Romain Rolland said that Kropotkin lived what Tolstoy only advocated,
and Oscar Wilde called him one of the two really happy men he had known. (P.A.)
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Å©·ÎÆ÷ƮŲ(Peter Kropotkin). Á¤½Ä
À̸§Àº Pyotr Alekseyevich Kropotkin. 1842. 12. 21(±¸·Â 12. 9) ¸ð½ºÅ©¹Ù~1921.
2. 8 ¸ð½ºÅ©¹Ù ±Ùó µå¹ÌÆ®·ÎÇÁ. ·¯½Ã¾ÆÀÇ Çõ¸í°¡, Áö¸®ÇÐÀÚ,
¹«Á¤ºÎÁÖÀÇ ¿îµ¿ÀÇ ÀÏ±Þ À̷а¡.
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