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General
works: KENNETH BURKE, The Philosophy of Literary Form, 2nd ed. (1967); I.A. RICHARDS, Practical
Criticism: A Study of Literary Judgment (1929, reprinted 1968) and Principles
of Literary Criticism (1924, reprinted 1961); GEORGE SAINTSBURY, A
History of Criticism and Literary Taste in Europe from the Earliest Texts to the
Present Day, 3 vol. (1900-04, reprinted 1961); NOWELL C. SMITH (ed.), Literary
Criticism (1905); KONSTANTIN KOLENDA, Philosophy
in Literature (1982).
A
Translation of the Latin Works of Dante Alighieri (1904),
see Letter X to Can Grande; CHARLES SEARS BALDWIN, Ancient Rhetoric and Poetic, Interpreted from Representative Works (1924),
Medieval Rhetoric and Poetic to 1400,
Interpreted from Representative Works (1928, reprinted 1971), and Renaissance
Literary Theory and Practice (1939); EDWARD H. BLAKENEY (ed.), Horace
on the Art of Poetry (1928); CECIL MAURICE BOWRA, Primitive Song (1962); S.H. BUTCHER, Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and Fine Art, with a critical text and
translation of the Poetics, 4th ed.
(1907; reprinted with corrections, 1932); INGRAM BYWATER, Aristotle on the Art of Poetry (1909), reprinted in Aristotle's Poetics
and Longinus on the Sublime, ed. by CHARLES SEARS BALDWIN (1930); PIERRE
CORNEILLE, Oeuvres, 3 vol. (1862),
containing the "Discourse on Dramatic Poetry" and "Discourse on
the Three Unities"; ALBERT S. COOK (ed.), The
Art of Poetry (1892, reprinted 1926), containing a translation of Horace's Art
of Poetry; J.D. DENNISTON, Greek
Literary Criticism (1924, reprinted 1971), translations, beginning with
Aristophanes; Dryden's Essays on the
Drama, ed. by WILLIAM STRUNK (1898); ALLAN H. GILBERT (ed.), Literary
Criticism: Plato to Dryden (1940); EDMUND D. JONES (ed.), English
Critical Essays (Sixteenth, Seventeenth, and Eighteenth Centuries) (1922); Ben
Jonson: Timber, Discoveries, and Conversations with Drummond of Hawthornden in
his Works, ed. by C.H. HERFORD and PERCY SIMPSON, 11 vol. (1925-52);
LONGINUS, On the Sublime, Greek text
with an English translation by W. HAMILTON FYFE ("Loeb Classical
Library," 1927); Plato, trans. by
LANE COOPER (1938), contains the Phaedrus,
the Symposium, the Ion,
the Gorgias, and parts of the Republic
and the Laws; GEORGE PUTTENHAM,
The Arte of English Poesie, ed. by GLADYS D. WILLCOCK and ALICE WALKER
(1936); PAUL RADIN, Primitive Man as Philosopher (1927); Sidney's Apologie for Poetrie, ed. by J. CHURTON COLLINS (1907); G.
GREGORY SMITH (ed.), Elizabethan Critical
Essays, 2 vol. (1904); GAY WILSON ALLEN and H.H. CLARK (eds.), Literary
Criticism: Pope to Croce (1941 and 1962); MATTHEW ARNOLD, Essays
in Criticism, 2 vol., First and Second Series complete (1902), and Essays
in Criticism, with an introduction by E.J. O'BRIEN, Third Series (1910);
EDWIN BERRY BURGUM (ed.), The New
Criticism: An Anthology of Modern Aesthetics and Literary Criticism
(1930). SAMUEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE, Biographia
Literaria, or Biographical Sketches of My Literary Life and Opinions, 2
vol., reprinted from the original plates (1907); BENEDETTO CROCE, The
Defence of Poetry, Variations on the Theme of Shelley, trans. by E.F.
CARRITT (1933); T.S. ELIOT, Selected
Essays, 1917-1932 (1932); Hazlitt on
English Literature: An Introduction to the Appreciation of Literature, ed.
by JACOB ZEITLIN (1913, reprinted 1970); E.R. HUGHES (trans.), The
Art of Letters: Lu Chi's "Wen Fu," A.D. 302 "Bollingen Series
XXIX" (1951); THOMAS ERNEST HULME, Speculations: Essays on Humanism and the Philosophy of Art, ed. by
HERBERT READ (1924); JAMES GIBBONS HUNEKER, Essays
(1929); EDMUND D. JONES (ed.), English
Critical Essays of the Nineteenth Century (1922); PHYLLIS M. JONES (ed.), English
Critical Essays: Twentieth Century (1933);
WILLIAM PATON KER, Collected Essays, 2
vol. (1925, reprinted 1968); KARL MARX and FRIEDRICH ENGELS, Sur la littérature et l'art, ed. and trans. by JEAN FREVILLE
(1936); H.L. MENCKEN, A Mencken
Chrestomathy (1949); PAUL ELMER MORE, The
Demon of the Absolute (1928) and Shelburne
Essays, 11 series (1904-21); FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE, Ecce Homo and The Birth of
Tragedy, trans. by CLIFTON FADIMAN (1927); HORATIO, Works, 10 vol. (1910); GEORGY V. PLEKHANOV, Art and Society, trans. by ALFRED GOLDSTEIN (1936), a Marxist
analysis; EDGAR ALLAN POE, Selections from
the Critical Writings of Edgar Allan Poe, ed. with an introduction by F.C.
PRESCOTT (1909); EZRA POUND, ABC of
Reading (1934) and Literary Essays (1954);
HERBERT READ, Reason and Romanticism (1926);
CHARLES AUGUSTIN SAINTE-BEUVE, Causeries
du lundi, 15 vol. (1852-62; Eng. trans., 8 vol., 1909-11), contains
"What Is a Classic?". Shelley's
Literary and Philosophical Criticism, ed. by JOHN SHAWCROSS (1909); LEO
TOLSTOY, What Is Art?, trans. by
AYLMAR MAUDE (1932); LEON TROTSKY, Literature
and Revolution, trans. by ROSE STRUNSKY (1925, reprinted 1957); PAUL VALERY,
Littérature (1929) and Variété,
trans. by MALCOLM COWLEY (1927); WILLIAM CARLOS WILLIAMS, In
the American Grain (1925); EDMUND WILSON, Axel's
Castle (1931) and The Triple Thinkers,
rev. ed. (1952 and 1963); EMILE ZOLA, The Experimental Novel and Other Essays, trans. by BELLE M. SHERMAN
(1893).
CECIL MAURICE BOWRA, In General and Particular (1964); STANLEY BURNSHAW (ed.), The
Poem Itself, rev. ed. (1967); CYRIL CONNOLLY, The
Modern Movement (1965); PAUL GOODMAN, The
Structure of Literature (1954); MARSHALL McLUHAN, Understanding
Media (1964); R.E. SCHOLES and R.L. KELLOGG, The Nature of Narrative (1966); HERBERT READ, The Nature of Literature (1956).
The most convenient way to get to know
poetry is to read poetry. It would be invidious for the writer of a general
article on the subject to prejudice the reader by making a selection of poems or
poets; in experience, anyhow, one's acquaintance with poetry comes about chiefly
by love and accident, supported, when not undermined, by schools, colleges, and
libraries. Beyond that, the bibliographical temptation is to put before the
reader numerous learned works that are not poetry but about poetry; whatever
their usefulness at various stages of study, and it may be great, they must not
substitute for the reading of poetry itself. Therefore no such list is
attempted.
The beginning reader, however, may well
be able to use some help in interpreting, such as a critical or explanatory
anthology. CLEANTH BROOKS and ROBERT PENN WARREN, Understanding Poetry, 4th ed. (1976), is still probably the best of
its kind, as numerous imitations amply attest. See also TZVETAN TODOROV, Introduction
to Poetics (1981; originally published in French, 1973), a comprehensive
introduction to modern poetics.
Greek
and Latin prosody: PAUL MAAS, Greek Metre, trans. by HUGH LLOYD-JONES (1962); ULRICH VON
WILAMOWITZ-MOLLENDORFF, Griechische
Verskunst (1921), the definitive work on the subject but difficult for
beginners.
MORRIS W. CROLL, Style, Rhetoric, and Rhythm (1966), contains classic essays on the
period styles of prose and on musical scansion of verse; GEORGE SAINTSBURY, A
History of English Prose Rhythm (1912, reprinted 1965).
WILLIAM BEARE, Latin Verse and European Song: A Study in Accent and Rhythm (1957);
ROBERT BRIDGES, Milton's Prosody, rev.
ed. (1921); HARVEY S. GROSS, Sound and
Form in Modern Poetry: A Study of Prosody from Thomas Hardy to Robert Lowell (1964);
T.S. OMOND, English Metrists (1921,
reprinted 1968); GEORGE SAINTSBURY, A
History of English Prosody from the Twelfth Century to the Present, 3 vol.
(1906-10); JOHN THOMPSON, The Founding of
English Metre (1961).
SEYMOUR B. CHATMAN, A Theory of Meter (1965); OTTO JESPERSEN, "Notes on
Metre," in The Selected Writings of
Otto Jespersen (1962); WILLIAM K. WIMSATT, JR., and MONROE C. BEARDSLEY,
"The Concept of Metre: An Exercise in Abstraction," in WILLIAM K.
WIMSATT, JR., Hateful Contraries (1965);
YVOR WINTERS, "The Audible Reading of Poetry," in The
Function of Criticism (1957).
ROBERT H. BROWER and EARL MINER, Japanese
Court Poetry (1961); JAMES LEGGE (ed. and trans.), The
Chinese Classics, vol. 4 (1960).
PAUL FUSSELL, JR., Poetic Meter and Poetic Form (1965); HARVEY S. GROSS (ed.), The
Structure of Verse: Modern Essays on Prosody (1966); JOSEPH MALOF, A
Manual of English Meters (1970).
H.M. CHADWICK, The Heroic Age (1912), and H.M. and N.K. CHADWICK, The
Growth of Literature, vol. 1, The
Ancient Literatures of Europe (1932), are two classic works on European
heroic poetries that are still valuable. A more comprehensive and up-to-date
general survey is given in C.M. BOWRA, Heroic
Poetry (1952); and J. DE VRIES, Heldenlied
und Heldensage (1961; Eng. trans., Heroic
Song and Heroic Legend, 1963).
A.B. LORD, The Singer of Tales (1960), was written by an authority on the
Balkan oral epic of the guslari. On
Homer, see G.S. KIRK, The Songs of Homer (1962);
W. SCHADEWALDT, Von Homers Welt und Werk, 4th
ed. (1965); C.M. BOWRA, Homer and His
Forerunners (1955); and R. CARPENTER, Folk Tale, Fiction and Saga in the Homeric Epics (1946). F.R.
SCHRODER, Germanische Heldendichtung (1935),
is a basic reference book for the study of the Germanic epic. J.B. PRITCHARD, The
Ancient Near East (1958), gives summaries and translations of Akkadian and
Ugaritic epics. A theory of the epics of the Indo-Europeans is presented by G.
DUMEZIL in Mythe et épopée, vol. 1-2 (1968-71). For the use of
mythical themes in the epics of the Indo-Europeans, see also D. WARD, The Divine Twins: An Indo-European Myth in Germanic Tradition (1968).
MICHAEL MURRIN, The Allegorical Epic
(1980), is a survey of the European tradition.
Fable:
E. CHAMBRY, Fables (1927), in Greek
and French; S.A. HANDFORD, Fables of Aesop
(1956); B. PARES, Krylov's Fables (1926);
MARIANNE MOORE, Fables of La Fontaine (1954).
For commentary on fables, see: P. CLARAC, La
Fontaine, l'homme et l'oeuvre (1947); B.E. PERRY, Aesopica
(1952).
A.M. HUNTER, The Parables: Then and Now (1971); ETA LINNEMANN, Gleichnisse
Jesu, 3rd ed. (1964; Eng. trans., The
Parables of Jesus, 1966); T.W. MANSON (ed.), The
Sayings of Jesus as Recorded in the Gospels According to St. Matthew and St.
Luke (1949); D.C. ALLEN, The Legend of
Noah: Renaissance Rationalism in Art, Science and Letters (1963); HEINZ
POLITZER, Franz Kafka: Parable and Paradox
(1962).
(General
theory and history): D.C. ALLEN, Mysteriously
Meant: The Rediscovery of Pagan Symbolism and Allegorical Interpretation in the
Renaissance (1970); C.H. DODD, The
Authority of the Bible (1958); A.S. FLETCHER, Allegory: The Theory of a Symbolic Mode (1964); R.M. GRANT, The
Letter and the Spirit (1958); EDWIN HONIG, Dark
Conceit: The Making of Allegory (1959); C.S. LEWIS, The
Allegory of Love (1936); JEAN PEPIN, Mythe
et allégorie (1958); ROSEMOND TUVE, Allegorical
Imagery (1966); MAUREEN QUILLIGAN, The
Language of Allegory: Defining the Genre (1979).
KENNETH BURKE, The Rhetoric of Religion (1961); HENRY CHADWICK, Early
Christian Thought and the Classical Tradition (1966); C.H. DODD, The
Interpretation of the Fourth Gospel (1968); A.O. LOVEJOY, The
Great Chain of Being (1936); H. DE LUBAC, Exégèse
médiévale: les quatre sens de l'Écriture (1959-64); A.
MOMIGLIANO (ed.), The Conflict Between Paganism and Christianity in the Fourth Century (1963);
G. VON RAD, Theologie des Alten
Testaments, 2nd ed. (1958; Eng. trans., Old
Testament Theology, 2 vol., 1962-65); RENE ROQUES, L'Univers dionysien (1954); B. SMALLEY, The Study of the Bible in the Middle Ages, 2nd ed. (1952); H.A.
WOLFSON, The Philosophy of the Church
Fathers, vol. 1, Faith, Trinity,
Incarnation (1956); Philo: Foundations
of Religious Philosophy in Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam, 2 vol. (1947).
ERICH AUERBACH, "Figura," in Scenes
from the Drama of European Literature: Six Essays (1959); A.C. CHARITY, Events and Their Afterlife: The Dialectics of Christian Typology in the
Bible and Dante (1966); JEAN DANIELOU, Sacramentum
futuri: études sur les origines de la typologie biblique (1950; Eng.
trans., From Shadows to Reality: Studies
in the Biblical Typology of the Fathers, 1960); AUSTIN FARRER, A
Rebirth of Images: The Making of St. John's Apocalypse (1949); R.P.C.
HANSON, Allegory and Event (1959);
W.G. MADSEN, From Shadowy Types to Truth:
Studies in Milton's Symbolism (1968).
ERICH AUERBACH, Dante als Dichter der irdischen Welt (1929; Eng. trans., Dante:
Poet of the Secular World, 1961); M.W. BLOOMFIELD, "Symbolism in
Medieval Literature," Modern
Philology, 56:73-81 (1958), and Piers
Plowman As a Fourteenth-Century Apocalypse (1962); EDGAR DE BRUYNE, Études
d'esthétique médiévale, 3 vol. (1946); M.D. CHENU, La Théologie au douzième siècle (1957; Eng.
trans. of nine selected essays, Nature,
Man, and Society in the Twelfth Century, 1968); E.R. CURTIUS, Europäische
Literatur und lateinisches Mittelalter (1948; Eng. trans., European
Literature and the Latin Middle Ages, 1953); RAYMOND KLIBANSKY, The
Continuity of the Platonic Tradition During the Middle Ages (1939); C.S.
LEWIS, The Discarded Image: An Introduction to Medieval and Renaissance
Literature (1964); JOSEPH A. MAZZEO, Medieval
Cultural Tradition in Dante's Comedy (1960); D.W. ROBERTSON and B.F. HUPPE, Piers
Plowman and Scriptural Tradition (1951); CHARLES SINGLETON, Dante
Studies, vol. 1, Commedia (1954).
DOUGLAS BUSH, Mythology and the Renaissance Tradition in English Poetry, rev. ed.
(1963); WALTER BENJAMIN, Ursprung des
deutschen Trauerspiels (1928); HAROLD BLOOM, The Visionary Company (1961); A.S. FLETCHER, The Prophetic Moment: An Essay on Spenser (1971); ALASTAIR FOWLER, Triumphal
Forms: Structural Patterns in Elizabethan Poetry (1970); NORTHROP FRYE, Fearful Symmetry: A Study of William Blake (1947); U.M. KAUFMAN, The
Pilgrim's Progress and Traditions in Puritan Meditation (1966); MICHAEL
MURRIN, The Veil of Allegory: Some Notes Toward a Theory of Allegorical Rhetoric
in the English Renaissance (1969); JEAN SEZNEC, La
Survivance des dieux antiques (1939; Eng. trans., The
Survival of the Pagan Gods, rev. ed., 1953); E.M.W. TILLYARD, The
Elizabethan World Picture (1943); EDGAR WIND, Pagan Mysteries in the Renaissance, new ed. (1968).
F.J. CHILD (ed.), The English and Scottish Popular Ballads, 5 vol. (1882-98), is the
canon of traditional balladry; the tunes for which are supplied in B.H. BRONSON
(ed.), Traditional Tunes of the Child
Ballads, 4 vol. (1959-72). Important broadside collections include The
Roxburghe Ballads, ed. by W. CHAPPELL and J.W. EBSWORTH, 9 vol. (1871-99);
and The Pepys Ballads, ed. by H.E. ROLLINS, 8 vol. (1929-32). See also The
Common Muse: An Anthology of Popular British Ballad Poetry, XVth-XXth Century, ed.
by V. DE SOLA PINTO and A.E. RODWAY (1957); C.M. SIMPSON, The
British Broadside Ballad and Its Music (1966); T.P. COFFIN, The British Traditional Ballad in North America, rev. ed. (1963);
and G.M. LAWS, Native American Balladry, rev.
ed. (1964). Ballad criticism and scholarship are analyzed in S.B. HUSTVEDT, Ballad
Books and Ballad Men (1930); D.K. WILGUS, Anglo-American
Folksong Scholarship Since 1898 (1959); A.B. FRIEDMAN, The Ballad Revival: Studies in the Influence of Popular on Sophisticated
Poetry (1961); C.J. SHARP, English
Folk-Song: Some Conclusions (1907); G.H. GEROULD, Ballad of Tradition (1932); and M.J.C. HODGART, Ballads
(1950). A.T. QUILLERCOUCH (ed.), The
Oxford Book of Ballads (1910, reissued 1951); M. LEACH (ed.), The
Ballad Book (1955); and A.B. FRIEDMAN (ed.), Folk Ballads of the English Speaking World (1956), are the standard
anthologies.
Among older works the most notable are
RICHARD HURD, Letters on Chivalry and
Romance (1764); GEORGE ELLIS, Specimens
of Early English Metrical Romances, 3 vol. (1805); and SIR WALTER SCOTT,
"Essay on Romance" in the Supplement to the 1815-24 edition of the Encyclopædia
Britannica. The academic study of romance as a form of imaginative narrative
may be said to have begun in 1897 with the publication of W.P. KER, Epic
and Romance (2nd ed. 1908, reprinted 1957), and of GEORGE SAINTSBURY, The
Flourishing of Romance and the Rise of Allegory. (Origins
and sources): EDMOND FARAL, Recherches
sur les sources latines des contes et romans courtois du moyen âge (1913);
JESSIE L. WESTON, From Ritual to Romance (1920,
reprinted 1957); ROGER S. LOOMIS, Arthurian
Tradition and Chrétien de Troyes (1949); and JEAN MARX, La
Légende arthurienne et le Graal (1952). (Nature
and development): FANNI BOGDANOW, The
Romance of the Grail (1966); EUGENE VINAVER, The
Rise of Romance (1971); and ROSEMOND TUVE, Allegorical
Imagery (1966). J.D. BRUCE, The
Evolution of Arthurian Romance, 2nd ed., 2 vol. (1928), at one time the
standard work in this field, has now been largely superseded by R.S. LOOMIS
(ed.), Arthurian Literature in the Middle
Ages: A Collaborative History (1959). Since 1949 the International Arthurian
Society has been publishing an annual Bibliographical
Bulletin covering the whole range of Arthurian literature in all languages.
The best guide to current research is
the annual Bibliography of Old
Norse-Icelandic Studies (from 1964); for earlier works on the sagas, see Islandica
(from 1908). Standard editions of important texts include Íslenzk
fornrit (from 1933); Altnordische
Saga-Bibliothek, ed. by G. CEDERSCHIOLD et
al., 18 vol. (1892-1929); Editiones
Arnamagnaeanae (from 1958); Fornaldar
Sögur Nordurlanda, 4 vol. (1950); Sturlunga
saga, 2 vol. (1946); and Nelson's
Icelandic Texts (from 1957), with English translations. Useful general
surveys of the sagas are PETER HALLBERG, Den
Isländska Sagan (1956; Eng. trans., The
Icelandic Saga, 1962); S. NORDAL, Sagalitteraturen
(1953); and KURT SCHIER, Sagaliteratur
(1969). For criticism and interpretation of the saga, see WALTER BAETKE, Über
die Entstehung der Isländersagas (1956); THEODORE M. ANDERSSON, The
Problem of Icelandic Saga Origins (1964); GABRIEL TURVILLE-PETRE, Origins of Icelandic Literature (1953); THEODORE M. ANDERSSON, The
Icelandic Family Saga: An Analytic Reading (1967); HERMANN PALSSON, Art
and Ethics in Hrafnkel's Saga (1971); EINAR O. SVEINSSON, Á
Njálsbúd, bok um mikid listaverk (1943; Eng. trans., Njáls
Saga: A Literary Masterpiece, 1971); GABRIEL TURVILLE-PETRE, The Heroic Age of Scandinavia (1951) and Myth and Religion of the North (1964); and HERMANN PALSSON and PAUL
EDWARDS, Legendary Fiction in Medieval
Iceland (1970). See also MARGARET SCHLAUCH, Romance in Iceland (1934); and E.F. HALVORSEN, The Norse Version of the Chanson de Roland (1959).
Of translations into English, the
following may be mentioned: L.M. HOLLANDER (ed. and trans.), Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway (1964) and The
Sagas of Kormák and the Sworn Brothers (1949); GWYN JONES (ed. and
trans.), The Vatnsdalers' Saga (1944),
Egil's Saga (1960), and Eirik
the Red, and Other Icelandic Sagas (1961); GEORGE JOHNSTON (ed. and trans.),
The Saga of Gisli (1963); HERMANN PALSSON (ed. and trans.), Hrafnkel's
Saga and Other Icelandic Stories (1971); PAUL EDWARDS and HERMANN PALSSON
(eds. and trans.), Arrow-Odd: A Medieval Novel (1970), Gautrek's Saga, and Other Medieval Tales (1968), Hrolf
Gautreksson: A Viking Romance (1972), and Eyrbyggja
Saga (1973); MAGNUS MAGNUSSON and HERMANN PALSSON (eds. and trans.), Njal's Saga (1960), The
Vinland Sagas (1965), King Harald's
Saga (1966), and Laxdaela Saga (1969);
M.H. SCARGILL and MARGARET SCHLAUCH (eds. and trans.), Three Icelandic Sagas (1950); J.I. YOUNG (ed. and trans.), The
Prose Edda of Snorri Sturluson: Tales from Norse Mythology (1954); J.H.
McGREW (ed. and trans.), Sturlunga Saga, vol.
1 (1970); DENTON FOX and HERMANN PALSSON (eds. and trans.), Grettir's
Saga (1973).
The following works deal in general
terms with the reader's approach to the novel: WALTER ALLEN, Reading a Novel, rev. ed. (1963); VAN METER AMES, Aesthetics
of the Novel (1928, reprinted 1966); CLEANTH BROOKS and R.P. WARREN (eds.), Understanding Fiction, 3rd. ed.
(1979); ALEXANDER COMFORT, The Novel and
Our Time (1948); PELHAM EDGAR, The Art
of the Novel (1933, reprinted 1966); WILSON FOLLETT, The
Modern Novel: A Study of the Purpose and Meaning of Fiction, rev. ed.
(1923); E.M. FORSTER, Aspects of the Novel (1927, many reprintings); PERCY LUBBOCK, The
Craft of Fiction, new ed. (1957).
The following are concerned with the
problems of writing fiction and are all the work of novelists: PHYLLIS BENTLEY, Some
Observations on the Art of Narrative (1946); Conrad's
Prefaces to His Works, with an essay by EDWARD GARNETT (1937); HENRY JAMES, The
Art of Fiction and Other Essays, ed. by MORRIS ROBERTS (1948), and The
Art of the Novel, introduction by R.P. BLACKMUR (1934); EDITH WHARTON, The
Writing of Fiction (1925); THOMAS WOLFE, The
Story of a Novel (1936).
The various elements of the novel are
dealt with in the following: BONAMY DOBREE, Modern
Prose Style, 2nd ed. (1964); MAREN ELWOOD, Characters Make Your Story (1942); MANUEL KOMROFF, How
to Write a Novel (1950); W. VAN O'CONNOR (ed.), Forms
of Modern Fiction (1948); GEORGE G. WILLIAMS (ed.), Readings
for Creative Writers (1938).
The following studies deal with the
style and philosophy of the novel in the wider sense: DAVID DAICHES, The
Novel and the Modern World, rev. ed. (1960); AGNES HANSEN, Twentieth
Century Forces in European Fiction (1934); ALFRED KAZIN, On Native Grounds (1942); Y. KRIKORIAN (ed.), Naturalism and the Human Spirit (1944); GEORGE LUKACS, Studies
in European Realism (1950), and The
Historical Novel (1962); H.J. MULLER, Modern
Fiction (1937); and MAS'UD ZAVARZADEH, The
Mythopoeic Reality: The Postwar American Nonfiction Novel (1976).
K.P. KEMPTON examines the genre,
emphasizing theme and meaning, in The
Short Story (1947). An excellent analysis of story techniques is offered in
SEAN O'FAOLAIN, The Short Story (1948).
BRANDER MATTHEWS, The Philosophy of the
Short Story (1901, reprinted 1931), is predicated on Poe's theories. A
provocative thesis regarding the nature of stories is presented in FRANK
O'CONNOR, The Lonely Voice: A Study of the
Short Story (1963). H.S. SUMMERS has collected some of the more important
discussions of the form in Discussions of
the Short Story (1963). Storytellers
and Their Art, ed. by G. SAMPSON
and C. BURKHART (1963), contains comments of various authors on the form. More
specialized discussions of the form are contained in F.L. PATTEE, The
Development of the American Short Story (1923); R.B. WEST, Short
Story in America, 1900-1950 (1952); E.K. BENNETT, A
History of the German Novelle, 2nd ed. rev. by H.M. WAIDSON (1961); and S.
TRENKNER, Greek Novella in the Classical
Period (1958).
ALLARDYCE NICOLL, World Drama (1949), offers the best survey of the whole field, but
should be supplemented by JOHN GASSNER and EDWARD QUINN, The Reader's Encyclopaedia of World Drama (1969); and PHYLLIS
HARTNOLL, The Oxford Companion to the
Theatre, 3rd ed. (1967). The classical texts of dramatic theory and
criticism may be found in a collection by B.H. CLARK, European Theories of the Drama, rev. ed. (1965), which also contains
an extensive bibliography. The Natya
Shastra of BHARATA, the classic source for Indian dramatic theory, was
translated by M.M. GHOSE in 1951.
Books of importance in the development
of modern theory on drama are BERNARD BECKERMAN, Dynamics of Drama (1970); E.R. BENTLEY, The Life of the Drama (1964); KENNETH BURKE, A Grammar of Motives (1945); FRANCIS FERGUSSON, The
Idea of a Theatre (1949); S.K. LANGER, Feeling
and Form (1953); ELDER OLSON, Tragedy
and the Theory of Drama (1961); RONALD PEACOCK, The
Art of Drama (1957); J.L. STYAN, The
Elements of Drama (1960); and KEIR ELAM, The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama (1980), a technical semiotic
approach.
The finest study of the classical drama
of Greece is probably H.D.F. KITTO, Greek
Tragedy, 3rd ed. (1961); and for the medieval drama are recommended KARL
YOUNG, The Drama of the Medieval Church, 2
vol. (1933); HARDIN CRAIG, English
Religious Drama of the Middle Ages (1955); and O.B. HARDISON, Christian
Rite and Christian Drama in the Middle Ages (1965). Oriental theatre is
surveyed in FAUBION BOWERS, Japanese
Theatre (1952); F.A. LOMBARD, An
Outline History of the Japanese Drama (1928), which should be read in
conjunction with ARTHUR WALEY'S classic The
Noh Plays of Japan (1922); A.C. SCOTT, The
Classical Theatre of China (1957); A.B. KEITH, The
Sanskrit Drama (1924); with H.W. WELLS's comparative studies, The
Classical Drama of India (1963), and The
Classical Drama of the Orient (1965).
M.C. BRADBROOK, Themes and Conventions of Elizabethan Tragedy (1935); and U.M.
ELLIS-FERMOR, Jacobean Drama (1936),
are standard surveys of the English Renaissance drama; and for standard
Shakespearean criticism the reader should consult A.M. EASTMAN, A
Short History of Shakespearean Criticism (1968). The classic source books
for the commedia dell'arte are P.L. DUCHARTRE, La
Comédie italienne (Eng. trans., The
Italian Comedy, 1929, reprinted 1966); and ALLARDYCE NICOLL, Masks,
Mimes and Miracles (1931). On the French classical drama H.C. LANCASTER, A
History of French Dramatic Literature in the Seventeenth Century, 9 vol.
(1929-42), is standard; but MARTIN TURNELL, The
Classical Moment (1947), deals more briefly with Corneille, Racine, and Molière.
On Restoration comedy J.L. PALMER, The
Comedy of Manners (1913); and BONAMY DOBREE, Restoration
Comedy (1924), remain the best.
American drama is surveyed briefly in
W.J. MESERVE, An Outline History of
American Drama (1965); and A.S. DOWNER, Fifty
Years of American Drama, 1900-1950 (1951).
U.M. ELLIS-FERMOR, The Irish Dramatic
Movement, 2nd ed. (1954), is a comprehensive study of the early years at
Dublin's Abbey Theatre; and on Western drama after Ibsen the reader should begin
by consulting ERIC BENTLEY, The Playwright
as Thinker (1946, reprinted 1955); ROBERT BRUSTEIN, The
Theatre of Revolt (1964); and J.L. STYAN, The
Dark Comedy, 2nd ed. (1968), an account of the blending of tragic and comic
elements in the post-Ibsen theatre.
C.L. BARBER, Shakespeare's Festive Comedy: A Study of Dramatic Form and Its Relation
to Social Custom (1959), Shakespearean comedy considered in relation to
archetypal patterns of folk ritual and games; LANE COOPER, An Aristotelian Theory of Comedy, with an Adaptation of the Poetics and
a Translation of the Tractatus Coislinianus (1922), the only modern text of
the Tractatus, with an introductory
essay relating it to Aristotle's theory of tragedy, and a conjectural
reconstruction of the lost treatise on comedy based on the example of the Poetics;
F.M. CORNFORD, The Origin of Attic
Comedy (1914; ed. by T.H. GASTER, 1961), an account of the development of
Greek comedy from primitive fertility rites, and of the survival of traces of
these ceremonials in the extant plays of Aristophanes; CYRUS HOY, The Hyacinth Room: An Investigation into the Nature of Comedy, Tragedy,
and Tragicomedy (1964), an examination of the plays of Euripides,
Shakespeare, Jonson, Molière, Ibsen, Strindberg, Pirandello, Beckett, and
Ionesco; J.W. KRUTCH, Comedy and
Conscience After the Restoration (1924, reprinted with a new preface and
additional bibliographic material, 1949), a study of the decline of Restoration
comedy and the rise of sentimental comedy at the end of the 17th and the
beginning of the 18th century; K.M. LYNCH, The
Social Mode of Restoration Comedy (1926), the best available account of the
relation of the plays of Dryden, Etherege, Wycherley, Congreve, and their
contemporaries to their social milieu; A.W. PICKARD-CAMBRIDGE, Dithyramb,
Tragedy, and Comedy (1927; 2nd ed. rev. by T.B.L. WEBSTER, 1962), and The
Dramatic Festivals of Athens (1953; 2nd ed. rev. by J. GOULD and D.M. LEWIS,
1968), the definitive accounts of the origins of Greek comedy and tragedy; and
F.H. RISTINE, English Tragicomedy: Its
Origin and History (1910), the only full-scale account of the subject
through the 17th century.
A lengthier development of many of the
points made in this section may be found in R.B. SEWALL, The Vision of Tragedy (1959). J. JONES, On Aristotle and Greek Tragedy (1962), examines the origins of Greek
tragedy. Works concentrating on modern tragedy include GEORGE STEINER, The
Death of Tragedy (1961); WALTER KERR, Tragedy
and Comedy (1968); and RAYMOND WILLIAMS, Modern
Tragedy (1966). Special aspects of tragedy are treated in J.M.R. MARGESON, The Origins of English Tragedy (1967); EUGENE VINAVER, Racine
and Poetic Tragedy (1955); and A.C. BRADLEY, Shakespearean Tragedy (1904). A useful anthology of writings on
tragedy is LIONEL ABEL (ed.), Moderns on
Tragedy (1967). Other recent works on the subject include RICHMOND HATHORN, Tragedy,
Myth, and Mystery (1962); MURRAY KRIEGER, The
Tragic Vision: Variations on a Theme in Literary Interpretation (1960);
DOROTHY KROOK, Elements of Tragedy (1969);
and TIMOTHY J. REISS, Tragedy and Truth
(1980).
DAVID WORCESTER, The Art of Satire (1940), a study of rhetorical techniques available
to the satirist; JAMES R. SUTHERLAND, English Satire (1958), a sound scholarly history; ALVIN B. KERNAN, The
Cankered Muse: Satire of the English Renaissance (1959), valuable theory and
criticism; ROBERT C. ELLIOTT, The Power of
Satire: Magic, Ritual, Art (1960), on the origins of satire in magic and its
development into an art; RONALD PAULSON, The
Fictions of Satire (1967), a study of satire in fiction from Lucian to
Swift, and (ed.), Satire: Modern Essays in
Criticism (1971), an authoritative and indispensable collection; MATTHEW
J.C. HODGART, Satire (1969), a
well-illustrated, readable survey of satire in many forms and in many countries.
On the essay, see R.D. O'LEARY, The
Essay (1928), which analyzes the essay theoretically and examines several
categories of essayists. DAVID DAICHES gives a brief and lively introduction to
his anthologies of essays: A Century of
the Essay: British and American (1951), and More
Literary Essays (1968). On letter writing in general, the best piece is by
GUSTAVE LANSON, in French: Introduction to Choix
de lettres du XVIIe siècle,
5th rev. ed. (1898), reprinted in Lanson's Essais
de méthode, de critique et d'histoire littéraire, pp. 243-258
(1965). On personal literature, the diary, autobiography, and the questions
raised by those forms of prose, see HENRI PEYRE, Literature
and Sincerity (1963).
Critical
and scholarly books: JAMES L. CLIFFORD, From
Puzzles to Portraits: Problems of a Literary Biographer (1970), examples of
the author's own research followed by an analysis of biographical problems; LEON
EDEL, Literary Biography (1959), essentially an account of the methods,
psychological and narrative, used by the author in his multivolume life of Henry
James; JOHN A. GARRATY, The Nature of
Biography (1957), a historical survey coupled with a study of biographical
methods, with emphasis on aids offered by psychology; PAUL M. KENDALL, The
Art of Biography (1965), a historical survey, with emphasis on contemporary
biography, and a study of biographical problems from the viewpoint of a
practicing biographer; ANDRE MAUROIS, Aspects
de la biographie (1928; Eng. trans. 1930) and HAROLD NICOLSON, The
Development of English Biography (1928), particularly interesting for
complementary views of the "new" biography of the 1920s by two eminent
biographers; ROY PASCAL, Design and Truth
in Autobiography (1960), a historical survey and a study of the chief
problems, aspects, and varieties of autobiography; WILLIAM M. RUNYAN, Life
Histories and Psychobiography (1982), a discussion of methodologies used in
conducting psychobiographical research.
JAMES L. CLIFFORD (ed.), Biography
as an Art: Selected Criticism 1560-1960
(1962); WILLIAM H. DAVENPORT and BEN SIEGEL (eds.), Biography
Past and Present (1965), contains a number of critical essays as well as
biographical selections; EDGAR JOHNSON (ed.), A Treasury of Biography (1941); JOHN C. METCALFE (ed.), The
Stream of English Biography (1930).
A useful compilation of essential texts
is MARK SCHORER, JOSEPHINE MILES, and GORDON McKENZIE (eds.), Criticism, rev. ed. (1958). The best survey of critical history is
WILLIAM K. WIMSATT, JR., and CLEANTH BROOKS, Literary Criticism: A Short History (1957); G.M.A. GRUBE, The
Greek and Roman Critics (1965); JOEL E. SPINGARN, A
History of Literary Criticism in the Renaissance, 5th ed. (1925, paperback
edition 1963); WALTER J. BATE, From
Classic to Romantic (1946, reprinted 1961); and RENE WELLEK, A
History of Modern Criticism, 1750-1950, 4 vol. (1955-65), are more
specialized historical studies. Important theoretical statements are M.H.
ABRAMS, The Mirror and the Lamp (1953);
RENE WELLEK and AUSTIN WARREN, Theory of
Literature, 3rd rev. ed. (1966); NORTHROP FRYE, Anatomy of Criticism (1957); and WAYNE C. BOOTH, The
Rhetoric of Fiction (1961). WILLIAM EMPSON, Seven
Types of Ambiguity, 3rd ed. (1956, reprinted 1963); ERICH AUERBACH, Mimesis
(1946; Eng. trans. 1953); and LIONEL TRILLING, The Liberal Imagination (1950), are representative examples of
modern criticism, combining theory with analysis of a wide variety of texts. See
also DOUWE W. FOKKEMA and ELRUD KUNNE-IBSCH, Theories of Literature in the Twentieth Century: Structuralism, Marxism,
Aesthetics of Reception, Semiotics (1978).
Historical,
critical: (Europe):
BETTINA HURLIMANN, Europäische Kinderbücher in drei Jahrhunderten, 2nd ed.
(1963; Eng. trans., Three Centuries of
Children's Books in Europe, 1968). (England):
GILLIAN AVERY, Nineteenth Century
Children: Heroes and Heroines in English Children's Stories 1780-1900 (1965);
FLORENCE V. BARRY, A Century of Children's
Books (1922, reprinted 1968); MARCUS CROUCH, Treasure
Seekers and Borrowers: Children's Books in Britain 1900-1960 (1962); F.J.
HARVEY DARTON, Children's Books in England: Five Centuries of Social Life (1932);
ROGER LANCELYN GREEN, Tellers of Tales:
British Authors of Children's Books from 1800 to 1964, rev. ed. (1965);
PERCY MUIR, English Children's Books, 1600
to 1900 (1954); M.F. THWAITE, From
Primer to Pleasure: An Introduction to the History of Children's Books in
England, from the Invention of Printing to 1900 (1963); JOHN ROWE TOWNSEND, Written
for Children: An Outline of English Children's Literature (1965). (Canada):
SHEILA EGOFF, The Republic of Childhood: A
Critical Guide to Canadian Children's Literature in English (1967). (Anglo-American
mainly): CORNELIA MEIGS et al., A
Critical History of Children's Literature: A Survey of Children's Books in
English from Earliest Times to the Present, rev. ed. (1969). (Germany):
IRENE DYHRENFURTH-GRAEBSCH, Geschichte des
deutschen Jugendbuches, 3rd rev. ed. (1967); H.L. KOSTER, Geschichte
der deutschen Jugendliteratur (1968). (Sweden):
EVA VON ZWEIGBERGK, Barnboken I Sverige
1750-1950 (1965). (France):
MARIE-THERESE LATZARUS, La Littérature
enfantine en France dans la seconde moitié du XIXe siècle
(1923); JEAN DE TRIGON, Histoire de la
littérature enfantine de ma Mère l'Oye au Roi Babar (1950). (Italy):
PIERO BARGELLINI, Canto alle rondini:
panorama storico della letteratura infantile, 6th ed. (1967); GIUSEPPE
FANCIULLI, Scrittori per l'infanzia, 3rd
ed. (1968); LOUISE RESTIEAUX HAWKES, Before
and After Pinocchio: A Study of Italian Children's Books (1933). (Spain):
CARMEN BRAVO VILLASANTE (ed.), Historia de
la literatura infantil española (1963). (Latin
America): CARMEN BRAVO VILLASANTE, Historia
y antología de la literatura infantil iberoamericana, 2 vol. (1966);
DORA PASTORIZA DE ETCHEBARNE, El cuento en
la literatura infantil, ensayo crítico (1962).
RICHARD BAMBERGER, Jugendlektüre, 2nd ed. (1965); ELEANOR CAMERON, The
Green and Burning Tree: On the Writing and Enjoyment of Children's Books (1969);
KORNEI CHUKOVSKY, From Two to Five, rev.
ed. (1968; Eng. trans. of the 20th Russian ed. of 1968); HANS CORNIOLEY, Beiträge zur Jugendbuchkunde (1966); MARGERY FISHER, Intent
upon Reading: A Critical Appraisal of Modern Fiction for Children (1961);
PAUL HAZARD, Les Livres, les enfants et les
hommes (1932; Eng. trans., Books,
Children and Men, 4th ed., 1960); ENZO PETRINI, Avviamento
critico alla letteratura giovanile (1958); LILLIAN H. SMITH, The
Unreluctant Years: A Critical Approach to Children's Literature (1953);
DOROTHY M. WHITE, Books Before Five (1954); KAY E. VANDERGRIFT, Child and Story (1981).
VIRGINIA HAVILAND, Children's Literature: A Guide to Reference Sources (1966); ANNE
PELLOWSKI, The World of Children's
Literature (1968).
BRIAN DOYLE (ed.), The Who's Who of Children's Literature (1968); MURIEL FULLER (ed.), More
Junior Authors (1963); STANLEY J. KUNITZ and HOWARD HAYCRAFT (eds.), The
Junior Book of Authors, 2nd ed. rev. (1951).
BETTINA HURLIMANN, Die Welt im Bilderbuch (1965; Eng. trans., Picture-Book World, 1968); LEE KINGMAN, JOANNA FOSTER, and RUTH
GILES LONTOFT (comps.), Illustrators of
Children's Books: 1957-1966 (1968); DIANA KLEMIN, The Art of Art for Children's Books: A Contemporary Survey (1966);
BERTHA E. MAHONY et al. (comps.), Illustrators
of Children's Books 1744-1945 (1947); BERTHA MAHONY MILLER et
al. (comps.), Illustrators of
Children's Books, 1946-1956 (1958).
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