Korean Literature
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Although Korea has had its own language
for several thousand years, it has had a writing system only since the mid-15th
century, when the Korean alphabet, Han'gul, was
invented. As a result, early literary activity was in Chinese characters. Korean
scholars were writing poetry in the traditional manner of classical Chinese at
least by the 4th century AD. A national academy was established shortly after
the founding of the Unified Silla dynasty (668-935); and, from the institution
of civil-service examinations in the mid-10th century until their abolition in
1894, every educated Korean had read the Confucian Classics and Chinese
histories and literature. The Korean upper classes were therefore bilingual in a
special sense: they spoke Korean but wrote in Chinese. (see also
Korean literature, Korean
language, Chinese languages) |
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By the 7th century a system, called idu,
had been devised that allowed Koreans to make rough transliterations of Chinese
texts. Eventually, certain Chinese characters were used for their phonetic value
to represent Korean particles of speech and inflectional endings. A more
extended system of transcription, called hyangch'al,
followed shortly thereafter, in which entire sentences in Korean could be
written in Chinese. In another system, kugyol,
abridged versions of Chinese characters were used to denote grammatical elements
and were inserted into texts during transcription. Extant literary works
indicate, however, that before the 20th century much of Korean literature was
written in Chinese rather than in Korean, even after the invention of Han'gul. |
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In general, then, literature written in
Korea falls into three categories: works written in the early transcription
systems, those written in Han'gul (Hankul), and those written in
classical Chinese. |
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There are four major traditional poetic
forms: hyangga ("native
songs"); pyolgok ("special
songs"), or changga ("long poems"); sijo ("current melodies"); and kasa ("verses"). Other poetic forms that flourished
briefly include the kyonggi-style, in
the 14th and 15th centuries, and the akchang
("words for songs") in the 15th century. The most representative akchang
is Yongbi och'on ka (1445-47;
Songs of Flying Dragons), a cycle
compiled in praise of the founding of the Yi dynasty. Korean poetry originally
was meant to be sung, and its forms and styles reflect its melodic origins. The
basis of its prosody is a line of alternating groups of three or four syllables,
which is probably the most natural rhythm to the language. |
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The oldest poetic form is the hyangga,
poems transcribed in the hyangch'al
system, dating from the middle period of the Unified Silla dynasty to the early
period of the Koryo dynasty (935-1392). The poems were written in four,
eight, or 10 lines; the 10-line form--comprising two four-line stanzas and a
concluding two-line stanza--was the most popular. The poets were either Buddhist
monks or members of the Hwarangdo, a school in which chivalrous youth were
trained in civil and military virtues in preparation for state service.
Seventeen of the 25 extant hyangga are
Buddhist in inspiration and content. |
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The pyolgok,
or changga, flourished during the
middle and late Koryo dynasty. It is characterized by a refrain either in
the middle or at the end of each stanza. The refrain establishes a mood or tone
that carries the melody and spirit of the poem or links a poem composed of
discrete parts with differing contents. The theme of most of these anonymous
poems is love, the joys and torments of which are expressed in frank and
powerful language. The poems were sung to musical accompaniments chiefly by
women entertainers, known as kisaeng. |
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The sijo
is the longest enduring and most popular form of Korean poetry. Although
some poems are attributed to writers of the late Koryo dynasty, the sijo
is primarily a poetic form of the Yi dynasty (1392-1910). Sijo were still being written in the second half of the 20th
century. They are three-line poems in which each line has 14 to 16 syllables,
and the total number of syllables seldom exceeds 45. Each line consists of
groups of four syllables. Sijo may
deal with Confucian ethical values, but there are also many poems about nature
and love. The principal writers of sijo in
the first half of the Yi dynasty were members of the Confucian upper class (yangban)
and kisaeng. In the latter part of the
Yi dynasty, a longer form, called sasol
sijo ("narrative sijo"),
evolved. The writers of this form were mainly common people; hence, the subject
matter included more down-to-earth topics, such as trade and corruption, as well
as the traditional topic of love. In addition, sasol sijo frequently employed slang, vulgar language, and
onomatopoeia. (see also Confucianism) |
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The kasa
developed at about the same time as the sijo.
In its formative stage, kasa borrowed
the form of the Chinese tz'u (lyric
poetry) or fu (rhymed prose). The kasa
tends to be much longer than other forms of Korean poetry and is usually
written in balanced couplets. Either line of a couplet is divided into two
groups, the first having three or four syllables and the second having four
syllables. The history of the kasa is
divided into two periods, the division being marked by the Japanese invasion of
1592-97. During the earlier period the poem was generally about 100 lines long
and dealt with such subjects as female beauty, war, and seclusion. The writers
were usually yangban. During the later
period the poem tended to be longer and to concern itself with moral
instruction, travel accounts, banishment, and the writer's personal misfortunes.
The later writers were usually commoners. |
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Immediately after the founding of the Yi
dynasty at the end of the 14th century and the establishment of the new capital
in Seoul, a small group of poetic songs called akchang was written to celebrate the
beginning of the new dynasty. In its earliest examples the form of akchang
was comparatively free, borrowing its style from early Chinese classical
poetry. Whereas the early akchang are
generally short, the later Yongbi och'on
ka consists of 125 cantos. |
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Korean prose literature can be divided
into narratives, fiction, and literary miscellany. Narratives include myths,
legends, and folktales
found in the written records. The principal sources of these narratives are the
two great historical records compiled during the Koryo dynasty: Samguk
sagi (1146; "Historical Record of the Three Kingdoms") and Samguk
yusa (1285; "Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms"). The most
important myths are those concerning the Sun and the Moon, the founding of Korea
by Tangun, and the lives of the ancient kings. The legends touch on place and
personal names and natural phenomena. The folktales include stories about
animals; ogres, goblins, and other supernatural beings; kindness rewarded and
evil punished; and cleverness and stupidity. Because the compiler of the Samguk
yusa was a Zen master, his collection includes the lives of Buddhist saints;
the origin of monasteries, stupas, and bells; accounts of miracles performed by
Buddhas and bodhisattvas; and other tales rich in shamanist and Buddhist
elements. The compilations made in the Koryo period preserved the stories
of prehistoric times, of the Three Kingdoms, and of the Silla dynasty and have
remained the basic sources for such material. Later compilations made during the
Yi dynasty served as a major source of materials for later Yi dynasty fiction. |
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Korean fiction can be classified in
various ways. First, there is fiction written in Chinese and that written in
Korean. Second, there are the short works of one volume, "medium"
works of about 10 volumes, and long works of more than 10 volumes. Third, there
are works of yangban writers and those
of common writers. In respect to the last classification, however, there is also
a group of fictional works in which the viewpoints of the yangban and the commoner are combined. Most of this fiction was
based on the narratives mentioned above, the author adding incidents and
characters to the original story. It is not possible to assign definite dates or
authors to most of these works. The stories are generally didactic, emphasizing
correct moral conduct, and almost always have happy endings. Another general
characteristic is that the narratives written by yangban
authors are set in China, whereas those written by commoners are set in
Korea. |
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The literary miscellany consists of
random jottings by the yangban on four
broad topics: history, biography, autobiography, and poetic criticism. Like
fiction, these jottings were considered to be outside of the realm of officially
sanctioned Chinese prose (e.g.,
memorials, eulogies, and records), but they provided the yangban with an outlet for personal expression. Thus, their
portrayal of the customs, manners, and spirit of the times in which they were
composed make these writings an essential part of Korean prose. |
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Oral literature includes all texts that
were orally transmitted from generation to generation until the invention of
Hangul (han'gul)--ballads, legends,
mask plays, puppet-show texts, and p'ansori
("story singing") texts. |
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In spite of the highly developed
literary activity from early in Korean history, song
lyrics were not recorded until the invention of Hangul (han'gul). These orally transmitted texts are categorized as ballads
and are classified according to singer (male or female), subject matter (prayer,
labour, leisure), and regional singing style (capital area, western, and
southern). The songs of many living performers, some of whom have been
designated as "intangible national treasures" by the South Korean
government, are still being recorded. |
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Legends include all those folk stories
handed down orally and not recorded in any of the written records. These legends
were for long the principal form of literary entertainment enjoyed by the common
people. They deal with personified animals, elaborate tricks, the participation
of the gods in human affairs, and the origin of the universe. |
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The mask
plays are found in Hahoe, Chinju, T'ongyong, Kimhae, and Tongnae in North
and South Kyongsang provinces; Yangju in Kyonggi Province; Pongsan
in Hwanghae Province; and Pukch'ong in south Hamgyong Province.
The most representative plays are the sandae kuk genre of
Yangju, the pyolsin kut of Hahoe, and
the okwangdae nori (five-actor play) of Chinju. Although the origin of these plays
is uncertain, they are generally presumed to have developed from primitive
communal ceremonies. Gradually, the ceremonial aspect of the plays disappeared,
and their dramatic and comic possibilities were exploited. The dialogue was
somewhat flexible, the actors being free to improvise and satirize as the
occasion demanded. The plays were not performed on a stage, and there were no
precise limits as to the space or time in which the performances took place. The
audience also traditionally responded vocally to the play as well as passively
watching it. The organization of the mask plays--through repetition and
variety--achieves a remarkable effect of dramatic unity. (see also
dramatic literature) |
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Only two puppet-show texts are extant, Kkoktukaksi
nori (also called Pak
Ch'omjikuk; "Old Pak's Play") and Mansok
chung nori. Both titles are derived
from names of characters in the plays. No theory has been formulated as to the
origin and development of these plays. The plots of the puppet plays, like those
of the mask plays, are full of satiric social criticism. The characters--Pak Ch'omji,
governor of P'yongam, Kkoktukaksi, Buddhist monk, and Hong Tongji--dance
and sing, enacting familiar tales that expose the malfeasance of the ruling
classes. (see also puppetry) |
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The final type of folk literature is
found in the texts of p'ansori
of the Yi dynasty. These texts were first recorded in the 19th century as verse,
but the written forms were later expanded into p'ansori fiction, widely read among the common people. This
transformation from poetry to narrative fiction was easily accomplished, since p'ansori
were always narrative. Originally the entire p'ansori
performance repertoire consisted of 12 madang
("titles"). Although all 12 remain as narrative fiction, only five
of them are sung today. The texts evolved gradually from the legends, which
provided their sources and were altered and expanded as they were passed from
one performer to another. |
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From the earliest times, poetry and
music have played an important part in the daily life of the Korean people. This
love for song and dance impressed the ancient Chinese, whose observations are
found in their early records. Ancient Korean songs, closely allied to the
religious life of the people, were performed at such rites as the worship of
heaven in the north and the sowing and harvest festivals in the south. These
songs were transmitted orally and were thought to have magical properties. |
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Three songs are handed down in Chinese
translation: "Kuji ka" (or "Yong singun ka";
"Song for Welcoming the Gods," in the Samguk yusa), "Hwangjo ka" (17 BC; "Song of
Orioles," in the Samguk sagi),
and "Kong mudoha ka" (or "Konghuin"; "A Medley for the
Harp," in the Haedong yoksa). The
"Kuji ka" is related to the myth of the founding of the Karak state,
but it appears to have been a prayer sung at shamanist rituals. Some have
interpreted it as being a song of seduction sung by women. The "Hwangjo
ka," attributed to King Yuri, seems to be a fragment of a love song. The
hero of "Kong mudoha ka" is thought to have been a shaman who drowned
himself while in a trance. Perhaps the poem indicates the loss of the shaman's
efficacy and authority when ancient Korea was transformed into a structured
state. The story also includes other characters such as the sailor, his wife,
and her friend. Another song, the "Tosol ka" (AD 28), is mentioned in
the Samguk sagi as the beginning of
secular poetry, but the poem itself has not survived. |
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In contrast to the literature of the
earliest ages, which is characterized by collective artistic activity, that of
later ages shows the effects of political, economic, and cultural changes as the
peninsula increased in wealth and widened its contacts with other areas. The
introduction of Buddhism and Chinese characters to the Three
Kingdoms enriched their literature and changed their worldview greatly.
In consequence, their artistic activity advanced far beyond collective singing
and dancing to the direct expression of individual feelings. The heroes of this
literature were human beings with individual personalities in contrast to the
more idealized tribal heroes of earlier times. |
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The three kingdoms of this period were
Koguryo, in the north; Paekche, in the
southwest; and Silla, in the southeast. The
writers of Koguryo, the geographical location of which provided close
contact with the Chinese mainland, seem to have retained something of the
original pioneer spirit from the times when Koreans came from the northern
regions and settled on the peninsula; their poems tended to be heroic tales in epic
form. The foundation myth of Koguryo concerns the migration of King
Tongmyong and his people into the region. The stories of Ondal, King
Mich'on, Prince Hodong, the heir apparent Yuri, and others that had their
origin in Koguryo are still used today as the bases for dramas and motion
pictures. (see also Koguryo
style) |
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In contrast to that of Koguryo,
the literature of Paekche and Silla tended to be lyrical, perhaps because of the
milder climate and easier life in the south. Although little literature from
Paekche has survived, the legends and songs contained in the Samguk
sagi give a hint of its original extent and richness. For example,
"Chongupsa" ("Song of Chongup")--in
which the wife of an itinerant merchant asks the Moon to protect her
husband--was passed down from Paekche through the Koryo and Yi dynasties
and is still appreciated in the 20th century. |
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Silla led the other two kingdoms both
politically (as proved by its subsequent unification of Korea) and artistically,
in spite of the fact that it was farthest removed from contact with Chinese
culture. The geographical and cultural distance from China, however, seems to
have been an advantage, since the culture of Silla was able to create a true
synthesis of native and foreign elements. |
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After the mid-7th century Silla absorbed
Koguryo and Paekche and created a stable political system covering most
of the Korean peninsula. During the Unified Silla dynasty many students were
sent at government expense to study in T'ang China. The consequent absorption of
Chinese culture and the flourishing of Korean Buddhism
both contributed to the remarkable artistic flowering of Silla. In particular,
the spiritual life of the Silla nobility--the monks and the chivalrous
Hwarangdo--was dominated by Buddhism, and Buddhism thus became the driving force
behind virtually all artistic activity. |
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The hyangga
was the crown of Silla's literary achievement. Although the term hyangga
is used generally to distinguish Korean songs from Chinese poetry, it more
specifically denotes the 25 extant poems transcribed in the newly devised hyangch'al
system in the Unified Silla and early Koryo periods. The texts of 14 hyangga are preserved in the Samguk
yusa and those of 11 devotional poems by the Buddhist monk Kyunyo
in Kyunyo chon (1075; "Life of
Kyunyo"). A large collection, Samdaemok,
compiled by the monks Taegu and Wi Hong in 888, has not survived. The poems that
remain reveal a delicate and elegant style. Two examples written in the 8th
century include "Ch'an Kip'arang ka" ("Ode to the Knight
Kip'a"), which praises a member of the Hwarangdo, and "Che mangmae
ka" ("Song of Offerings to a Deceased Sister"), a funeral hymn. |
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At the same time, a great body of prose
narratives was also being written in classical Chinese. These include hundreds
of volumes of commentaries on Buddhist scriptures by such monks as Wonhyo,
Uisang, Wonch'uk, Taehyon, and Kyonghung;
stories of miracles performed by eminent monks, tales of the efficacy of
Buddhist statues, and the origins of Buddhist monasteries; stories of valour by
members of the Hwarangdo; and stories inspired by the Chinese narrative form ch'uan-ch'i
("tales of marvels"). The last three types of narratives in particular
became the basis of classical fiction in later dynasties. |
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The last master of the hyangga was the monk Kyunyo, who wrote voluminous
commentaries on, and was a great popularizer of, Buddhism. He composed his poems
in Korean, transmitted them orally, and encouraged his followers to chant and
memorize them. The poems in his Kyunyo
chon, based on the 10 vows of the bodhisattva Samantabhadra, were
transcribed from this oral transmission. The new poetic form that flourished
during the Koryo period (935-1392) was the pyolgok, which was of folk origin.
The pyolgok was intended for
large-scale performances on festive occasions, especially the Harvest Festival
and the Lantern Festival. Many pyolgok
were written and performed by women, and such poems as "Tongdong"
("Ode on the Seasons") and "Isanggok" ("Winter
Night") are among the most moving love lyrics in the Korean language. |
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The Koryo
dynasty was a time of social instability. Internal and external crises
abounded, the result of a factious and oppressive nobility and army, constant
border harassment by the Khitan and Juchen peoples, and the invasions of the
Mongols. Under such conditions established scholarly writers tended to be
introspective or hedonistic. Consequently, the new intellectuals who arose
toward the end of the dynasty began to adopt Confucian and Taoist dualistic
thought as their philosophy. They were dissatisfied with pyolgok
and sought a different form of poetic expression. This was the genesis of
the sijo, which became a popular
poetic form in the Yi dynasty. |
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Prose narratives underwent much
development during the Koryo period. These included myths, legends,
folklore, Buddhist stories and lives of saints, and literary miscellany. One
notable class of tales is that in which the hero is represented by a personified
inanimate object, such as wine, paper, a cane, ice, or a coin, or by an animate
object, such as bamboo or a turtle. Representative of this form is Kongbang
chon ("Tale of the Square-Holed Coin"), by Im Ch'un. Another major
style is heroic narrative poetry, of which the masterpiece is the "Tongmyong
wang p'yon" (1193; "Lay of King Tongmyong"), by Yi
Kyubo, written in an old, pentasyllabic style. A work in a similar vein is the Chewang ungi (1287; "Rhymed History of Emperors and
Kings"), by Yi Sunghyu, written in lines of five and seven
syllables. A notable example of hagiography is the Haedong kosung chon (1215; "Lives of Eminent Korean
Monks"), by Kakhun. The first collection of essays on poetry and other
current subjects written in Korea is the P'ahan
chip (1260; "Jottings to Break Up Idleness"), by Yi Inno (or Yi
Illo). In addition to poetic criticism, the random jottings of Yi Inno contain
autobiographical information in diary form; biographical notes on his friends
and associates, including their life-styles and literary tastes; and remarks on
contemporary manners and mores. The P'ahan
chip inaugurated a long tradition of similar works written in the late Koryo
and Yi dynasties. |
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The literature of the Yi
dynasty falls naturally into two periods, with the end of the Japanese
invasion (1597) serving as a dividing line. The early period is notable for its
poetry; the later, for its prose. Inheriting the tradition of Silla and Koryo,
the writers of the early Yi dynasty raised Korean literature to new heights. |
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The early Yi dynasty also marks the
initiation of a new era in Korean literary history with the invention of Hangul
(han'gul) in 1443-44, during the reign
of King Sejong. This important event finally enabled Korean writers to record
works in their native language. |
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The extraordinary king Sejong was not
only the motivating force behind the invention of Hangul but also had his
scholars compile Yongbi och'on ka to
praise the founding of the Yi dynasty, especially the valour and virtue of his
father and grandfather. He himself compiled Worin
ch'ongang chigok (1447; "Songs of the Moon's Reflection on a Thousand
Rivers") in praise of the life of the Buddha. Both works helped test and
demonstrate the practicality of Hangul as a means of literary expression and
were the prototype of the new akchang
form. Scholar-officials used the form to justify the founding of the new dynasty
and to praise the virtues of its founder and the beauty of the new capital. As a
literature of the privileged class, the popularity of the akchang
was always limited, and it was soon eclipsed by the most important forms of the
Yi dynasty--sijo and kasa. |
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These forms owe their popularity to two
factors. First, their style of expression was rich and natural and was widely
appreciated by readers. Second, they were popular with writers because together
the forms provided ideal outlets for the two sides of the Confucian temper: the
brief and simple sijo were perfect
vehicles for intense lyrical expression, whereas the longer kasa
gave writers an opportunity to expound at greater length on the more
practical aspects of Confucian thought. |
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The expressive content of the sijo
ranges from the idealistic union of man and nature (often coupled with the
poet's pride in his poverty) to the longing for sovereigns by subjects in exile
(allegorical pieces in which an analogy is drawn between fidelity and romantic
love) to the deeper exploration of human problems. Writers of sijo
include Maeng Sasong, Yi Hyonbo, Yi Hwang, and Yi I.
Representative poets of kasa include
Chong Ch'ol and Ho Nansorhon. |
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Even after the invention of Hangul,
prose continued to be written in Chinese. The five stories contained in the Kumo
sinwha ("New Stories from Golden
Turtle Mountain") by Kim Sisup, for example, are in the tradition of
the ch'uan-ch'i. Subject material
includes love affairs between mortals and ghosts and dream journeys to the
underworld or to the Dragon Palace. Two collections of literary miscellany, the P'aegwan
chapki ("The Storyteller's Miscellany") by O Sukkwon
and the Yongjae ch'onghwa
("Miscellany of Yongjae") by Song Hyon, were written in
Chinese and influenced the growth and development of vernacular prose in the
later Yi dynasty. |
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The shift in emphasis from poetry to
prose after the Japanese invasion represents a significant step in the evolution
toward modern literature. It also reflects a basic change in the philosophical
outlook of Korean society. The Yi dynasty had suffered from the rigid formalism
of Confucian officials, whose doctrine was based on the principles of the
12th-century Chinese philosopher Chu Hsi. This Neo-Confucian philosophy was
gradually replaced by the Sirhak, or Silhak
("Practical Learning"), school, which was based on reason and the
scientific spirit of criticism. The introduction of Roman Catholicism from the
West and of new scientific ideas from China also stimulated the reform measures
advocated by the champions of the new school. (see also
Confucianism) |
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Practical Learning gave impetus to
literary activity and awakened the self-consciousness of the common people.
Poetry, which had been the monopoly of the lettered class, came to be written by
the common people. Women also were admitted into the literary world as the
principal audience for traditional fiction. The later active compilation of sijo
and prose narratives reveals the awakening interest in rediscovering and
reappraising the past. |
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The traditional vernacular
fiction--commonly called sosol
("small talk")--that emerged during this period consisted of stories,
romances, and fables. The 15th-century Kumo
sinwha, written in Chinese, was an important precursor, but the first work
of the genre was Hong Kiltong chon
("Tale of Hong Kiltong"), written in the early 17th century by the
scholar Ho Kyun. Kim Manjung, building on this style, wrote two major
works: Kuun mong (1687-88; "Dream
of Nine Clouds"), the story of a Buddhist monk's search for Enlightenment,
and Sassi namjong ki (c.
1689-92; "Story of Lady Sa's Journey to the South"), a satire
against the institution of concubinage. The most popular stories of the 18th
century were all anonymous: Ch'unhyang
chon ("Story of Spring Fragrance"), Shim
Ch'ong chon ("Story of Shim Ch'ong"), Changhwa
hongnyon chon ("Tale of Rose
Flower and Pink Lotus"), and Hungbu
chon ("Story of Hungbu"). These stories were written in a
simple and natural style, their characters being modeled on common people, and
they have become deeply rooted in Korean consciousness. |
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Stories set at court and written by
women also flourished during this period. Memorable works of court literature
include the Hanjung nok (1795-1805;
"Record of Sorrowful Days"), the tragic story of a succession dispute
written by Lady Hong, princess of Hyegyong Palace; Kyech'uk ilgi ("The Diary of Kyech'uk"), the anonymous
record of Queen Inmok's confinement after the assassination of her son; and Inhyon
wanghu chon ("Tale of Queen Inhyon"), an anonymous account
of the rivalry between the Queen and the King's concubine. All three of these
works described events that had actually taken place. Other prose works written
by women in Hangul include diaries, travel records, letters, and portraits.
These works, written in prose that verged on lyricism, could easily be chanted
and memorized by a growing female readership. |
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During the later Yi dynasty there was
also a great flowering of poetry by scholar-officials and commoners. The most
gifted poet of the period was Yun Sondo. His 77 sijo poems, including Obu sasi
sa (1651; The Angler's Calendar),
a cycle of 40 poems on the theme of the fisherman as sage, show his mastery of
topics and techniques of the sijo.
Gradually, the sijo was superseded in
popularity by the sasol sijo. The
growth of this new form, together with the rise of fiction, drama, genre
painting, and p'ansori,
reflects the rise of the middle class and changes in the approach to life. |
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Pak Inno, the master of kasa
in the 17th century, wrote in a style that combined erudition and lyricism. He
produced seven pieces between 1598 and 1636; the theme of his first two kasa
was the Japanese invasion, during which he served in the navy. The desire to
reevaluate the past and to re-create the world of literature led to changes in
the kasa, as exemplified in the
anonymous kasa by women and commoners.
Women writers of kasa were mainly from
the southern regions of Korea. They expressed their joys, angers, griefs, and
pleasures, and discoursed on the etiquette for entertaining guests, religious
rites, and the principles of being a wise mother and a good wife. Kasa
written by the commoners were marked by the same style as those written by women
and played a similar role in the literary activity of the general masses. There
are two other forms of kasa
written by the literati: travel records and accounts of life in exile. To the
first belong Iltong changyu ka (1764;
"Song of a Grand Trip to Japan"), written by Kim In'gyom upon
his return from an official trip to Japan; and the Yonhaeng ka (1866; "Song of a Journey to Peking"), written
by Hong Sunhak upon his return from an official trip to Peking. The second
includes Pukkwan kok ("Song of
the Northern Pass"), written by Song Chusok, who in 1675 accompanied
his grandfather, Song Siyol, to his place of exile in the northeast; the Manonsa
("Song of Ten Thousand Words"), written by An Towon (or An
Chohwan)during his banishment on the lonely island of Ch'uja, off the southeast
coast of Korea; and the Pukch'on ka
(1853; "Song of a Northern Exile"), written by Kim Chinhyong,
depicting the life of exile in the northeast. |
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Another feature of the later Yi dynasty
was the formation, by the common people, of p'ansori
texts. P'ansori seem to have
originated during the reign of Sukchong (1675-1720), when old folktales were
first sung. Their style and form were fixed by the kwangdae, or professional singers, and a group of amateurs in Cholla
and Ch'ungch'ong provinces. Six of the original 12 titles were revised by
the master p'ansori writer Sin
Chaehyo, of which five are still performed. |
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The representative mask play is Sandae
kuk. Of unknown origin, it was usually performed on a makeshift, open-air
stage in 12 scenes, or acts. The masked actors followed a script that presented
a story in dialogue interspersed with dances and songs. As the puppets of the Kkoktukaksi nori show were made of pak (a gourd, rhyming with the Korean name Pak), it was also called Pak
Ch'omji kuk ("Old Pak's Play"). Through keen satire presented in a
unique and distinguished style, the contents of the masked drama and the puppet
show strongly reflect the environment and the feelings of the common people of
the later Yi dynasty. (see also puppetry) |
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By the time of the 1894 reforms, enough
social and intellectual change had occurred to suggest the beginnings of a
division between traditional and modern literature. But, just as conservatism
did not favour sudden changes in the political and social structure, literature,
too, faced a period of transition toward its modern transformation. Schools were
established by the educational ordinance of 1895, and the organization of
learned societies and "enlightenment" movements followed soon after.
Vernacular publications, the Tongnip sinmun ("Independent") and the Cheguk
sinmun ("Imperial Post"), along with the establishment of the
Korean Language Institute and the scientific study, consolidation, and
systematization of Korean grammar, also helped open the way for the modern
literary movement. |
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The first literary forms to appear after
the 1894 reforms were the sinsosol ("new
novel") and the ch'angga ("song").
These transitional literary forms were stimulated by the adaptation of foreign
literary works and the rewriting of traditional stories in the vernacular. The ch'angga,
which evolved from hymns sung at churches and schools in the 1890s, became
popular upon the publication of the "Aeguk ka" ("National
Anthem"), by Yi Yongu, and "Tongsim ka" ("A Boy's
Mind"), by Yi Chungwon, in an issue (1896) of the Tongnip
sinmun. Songwriters still used such traditional verse forms as the sijo and kasa or a song form, the predominant pattern of which (seven and
five syllables) showed the influence of popular Japanese songs (shoka).
Most songs denounced corruption in the
government and stressed independence, patriotic fervour, and modernization. |
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Three distinctly traditional elements
were inherited by the sinsosol. First
was the basic moral stance of reproving vice and rewarding virtue. Owing to the
prevailing atmosphere of the "enlightenment" period, advocates of
modernization were cast as virtuous, while the wicked were conservative. Second,
the development of the plot was governed by coincidence, and events that lacked
causality were nevertheless arbitrarily connected. Finally, the dialogue and the
accompanying narrative were fused into one expository structure. The pioneering
aspects of the sinsosol, however, were
that it was written wholly in prose, whereas a considerable part of traditional
fiction had been in verse; and it tried to depict a plausible human existence
with backgrounds and events that more closely resembled reality than was the
case in traditional fiction, which tended to follow certain model stories with
their established plot lines and stereotyped characterizations. Writers of sinsosol
also tried to unify the spoken and written language. Typical writers and their
works are Yi Injik, Kwi ui song (1907; "A Demon's Voice"); Yi Haejo, Chayujong
(1910; "Liberty Bell"); and Ch'oe Ch'ansik, Ch'uwolsaek
(1912; "Colour of the Autumn Moon"). In their works these writers
advocated modernization, a spirit of independence, contact with advanced
countries, study abroad, the diffusion of science and technology, and the
abolition of conventions and superstition. |
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The modern literary movement was
launched by Ch'oe Namson and Yi Kwangsu. In 1908 Ch'oe published the poem
"Hae egeso pada ege" ("From the Sea to Children") in Sonyon
("Children"), the first literary journal aimed at producing cultural
reform. Inspired by Byron's Childe
Harold's Pilgrimage, Ch'oe celebrates, in clean masculine diction, the
strength of the young people who will carry out the necessary social and
literary revolution. The poem's inventions include the use of punctuation marks,
stanzas of unequal length, and reference to the sea and children, hitherto
little mentioned in classical poetry. Neither Ch'oe nor his contemporaries,
however, could escape the bounds of traditional prosody or succeed in
modernizing traditional forms of speech and allusion. In his stories, which
dealt with the enlightened pioneers who championed Western science and
civilization, Yi Kwangsu adopted a prose style that approximated the everyday
speech of common people. Yi's reputation was established by Mujong
(1917; "The Heartless"), the first modern Korean novel. |
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In 1919, shortly before the unsuccessful
movement for independence from Japan, translations of such Western poets as Paul
Verlaine, Rémy de Gourmont, and Stéphane Mallarmé began to
exert a powerful influence on Korean poetry. The indirection and suggestiveness
of French Symbolist literature were introduced by Kim Ok, the principal
translator. Against the didacticism of the age Kim set Mallarmé, and
against its rhetoric and sentimentality he set Verlaine, concluding in the
process that free verse was the supreme creation of the Symbolists. Kim's
fascination with the Symbolist movement culminated in the publication of Onoe ui mudo (1921; "Dance of Anguish"), the first Korean
collection of translations from Western poetry. The exotic and melancholy beauty
of autumn and expressions of ennui and anguish appealed to poets who sought to
vent their frustration and despair at the collapse of the independence movement. |
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The movement for literary naturalism
was launched in the 1920s by a group of young writers who rallied around a new
definition of universal reality. Yom Sangsop, the first to
introduce psychological analysis and scientific documentation into his stories,
defined naturalism as an expression of awakened individuality. Naturalism's
purpose, Yom asserted, was to expose the sordid aspects of reality,
especially the sorrow and disillusionment occurring as authority figures are
debased and one's idols are shattered. Many works of naturalist fiction were
first-person narratives in which writers presented themselves as the subjects of
case studies. The disharmony between the writer and his society often induced
the writer to turn to nature; the land and simple folk furnished themes and
motifs for some of the better stories in the Zolaesque tradition, among them
"Pul" (1925; "Fire") by Hyon Chingon and
"Kamja" (1925; "Potato") by Kim Tongin. |
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The 1920s produced several major poets, Han
Yongun published Nim ui ch'immuk (1926; "The Silence of Love"), comprising
88 meditative poems. Han sought insight into the reasons why he and his country
had to endure Japanese occupation, and he found Buddhist contemplative poetry
the lyric genre most congenial to this pursuit. The nature and folk poet Kim Sowol
used simplicity, directness, and terse phrasing to good effect. Many of his
poems in Chindallaekkot (1925;
"Azaleas") were set to music. |
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The Mukden, or Manchurian, Incident
(1931) and the Japanese invasion of China in 1937 induced the Japanese military
authorities to impose wartime restrictions. The grinding poverty of the lower
classes at home and abroad, especially in the Korean settlements in southern
Manchuria, was the chief concern of the writers of the "new tendency"
movement, which opposed the romantic and "decadent" writers of the day
and later became proletarian in spirit. Writers of the class-conscious Korean
Artist Proletariat Federation (KAPF), organized in 1925, asserted the importance
of propaganda and regarded literature as a means to establish socialism. |
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Modern Korean literature attained its
maturity in the 1930s through the efforts of a group of talented writers. They
drew freely upon European examples to enrich their art. Translation of Western
literature continued, and works by I.A. Richards, T.S. Eliot, and T.E. Hulme
were introduced. This artistic and critical activity was a protest against the
reduction of literature to journalism and its use as propaganda by leftist
writers. |
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The first truly successful poet of
modern Korea was Chong Chiyong, who was influenced by William Blake and
Walt Whitman. Paengnoktam (1941;
"White Deer Lake"), his second book of poetry, symbolically represents
the progress of the spirit to lucidity and the fusion of man and nature. A
poetry of resistance, voicing sorrow for the ruined nation with defiance but
without violence or hatred, was produced by Yi Yuksa and Yun Tongju. In Yi's
poem "Cholchong" (1939; "The Summit"), he
re-creates the conditions of an existence in extremity and forces the reader to
contemplate his ultimate destiny. The poetry of Yun Tongju, a dispassionate
witness to Korea's national humiliation, expresses sorrow in response to
relentless tyranny. |
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Korean fiction of the 1930s took shape
in the void created by the compulsory dissolution of KAPF in 1935. Barred from
all involvement with social or political issues, some writers returned to nature
and sex; others retreated to the labyrinth of primitive mysticism, superstition,
and shamanism; still others sympathetically portrayed characters born out of
their time, defeated and lonely. In the early 1940s, the Japanese suppressed all
writings in Korean. Censorship, which had begun with the Japanese annexation of
Korea in 1910, was intensified. Korea was liberated in August 1945, and the
Republic of Korea (South Korea) was established three years later. The literary
scene experienced the revival of the controversy between left and right that had
raged in the late 1920s and early 1930s. There were frantic groupings and
regroupings, and most of the hardcore leftist writers, such as Yi Kiyong
and Han Sorya, were in North Korea by 1948. |
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The liberation of 1945 produced a
flowering of poetry of all kinds. Some poets were determined to bear witness to
the events of their age; some sought to further assimilate traditional Korean
values, while others drew variously on Western traditions to enrich their work.
So Chongju and Pak Tujin are known for their lifelong dedication
and contributions to modern Korean poetry. Considered to be the most
"Korean" of contemporary poets, So is credited with exploring
the hidden resources of the language, from sensual ecstasy to spiritual quest,
from haunting lyricism to colloquial earthiness. Pak is capable of a wide range
of moods, and his language and style impart a distinctive tone to his Christian
and nationalistic sentiments. Marked by sonorific intricacies and incantatory
rhythms, Pak's poems are imbued with a strong historical and cultural
consciousness that bears testimony to contemporary reality. |
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The single overwhelming reality in
Korean fiction since the Korean War has been the division of the country. The
38th parallel torments the conscience of every fictional protagonist, for it is
a symbol not only of Korea's trials but also of the division of mankind and of
the protagonist's alienation from himself and his world. Some have attempted to
capture the images of the people in lyrical prose; others have delved into the
conscience of the war's lost generation or into the inaction, self-deception,
and boredom of the alienated generation of the 1960s. Some have studied the
defeat and disintegration of good people; others have investigated the ways in
which modern society negates freedom and individuality. Outstanding among
writers of the roman-fleuve is Pak Kyongni, the mother-in-law of the poet
Kim Chiha. Pak's multivolume T'oji
(1969; "Land") has been acclaimed for its commanding style and
narrative techniques. |
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In the last quarter of the 20th century
a host of talented writers have been perfecting the art of being themselves. The
poet Hwang Tonggyu, for example, has drawn material not only from his own
experiences but also from the common predicament of the Korean people,
expressing what others know but do not think of saying or cannot say. The
novelist Yun Hunggil is another example of a writer who has cultivated
fiction as an instrument of understanding himself and others. In his Changma
(1973; "The Rainy Spell"), for example, Yun says that ideological
differences imposed upon the Korean people by history can be overcome if they
delve into the native traditions that have given them cohesion. |
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The "new" drama movement,
which began in 1908, saw the rise and fall of small theatre groups, such as the
T'oworhoe, organized in 1923, and finally the Kuk Yesul Yonguhoe
("Theatrical Arts Research Society"), organized in 1931. Through their
experimental theatre, the members of the society staged contemporary Western
plays and encouraged the writing of original plays, such as Yu Ch'ijin's T'omak
(1933; "Clay Hut"). The paucity of first-rate playwrights and actors,
the dearth of plays that satisfy dramatic possibilities, and the general living
standards of the audience, as well as the lack of government support, have
limited the scope of dramatic activity. Domestic plays and historical pieces,
however, have continued to be written and staged. (see also
dramatic literature) |
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BIBLIOGRAPHY |
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PETER H. LEE (comp. and ed.), Anthology
of Korean Literature from Early Times to the Nineteenth Century (1981),
collects representative poetic and prose works written in Chinese and Korean and
supplies commentary and criticism; his Lives
of Eminent Korean Monks (1969) is an annotated translation of KAKHUN, Haedong kosung chon (1215), with an introduction. RICHARD RUTT (ed.
and trans.), The Bamboo Grove (1971),
introduces sijo arranged by themes.
WON KO (trans. and comp.), Contemporary
Korean Poetry (1970), is another collection. PETER H. LEE (ed.), The
Silence of Love: Twentieth-Century Korean Poetry (1980), contains
translations of 16 major modern poets. DAVID R. McCANN (trans.), The
Middle Hour: Selected Poems of Kim Chi Ha (1980), contains 40 poems. Another
selection of poems, prose pieces, and a play by the same author is presented in
CHONG SUN KIM and SHELLY KILLEN (eds.), The
Gold Crowned Jesus and Other Writings (1978). |
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RICHARD RUTT and CHONG-UN KIM (trans.), Virtuous
Women (1974, reprinted 1979), contains translations of "Dream of Nine
Clouds," "Tale of Queen Inhyon," and "The Song of a
Faithful Wife, Ch'un Hyang." IN-SOP CHONG (ed. and trans.), Folk Tales from Korea (1952, reprinted 1969), is a representative
selection. DUK-SOON CHANG et al.
(eds.), The Folk Treasury of Korea:
Sources in Myth, Legends, and Folktale, trans. by TAE-SUNG KIM (1970), is a
collection of oral literature. SOUN KIM, The
Story Bag (1955), collects 30 folktales. For modern prose see KEVIN O'ROURKE
(comp.), Ten Korean Short Stories
(1973, reissued 1981); PETER H. LEE (ed.), Flowers of Fire: Twentieth-Century Korean Stories (1974, rev. ed.
1986); CHONG-WHA CHUNG (ed.), Modern
Korean Short Stories (1980); CHONG-UN KIM (ed.), Postwar Korean Short Stories, 2nd ed. (1983); and JI-MOON SUH
(trans.), The Rainy Spell and Other Korean
Stories (1983). |
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PETER H. LEE, Korean Literature: Topics and
Themes (1965), is an introduction to Korean literature, and his Songs
of Flying Dragons: A Critical Reading (1974) is an annotated translation of Yongbi
och'on ka (1445-47). W.E. SKILLEND, Kodae
Sosol: A Survey of Korean Traditional Style Popular Novels (1969), is a
catalog of Korean fiction. |
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(B.-W.C./P.H.L.) |
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