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"By Reason of Religious Training and Belief..."


A History of 

Conscientious Objection and Religion

 during the Vietnam War

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By Karl D. Nelson

Introduction

Definitions

Historiography

Chatper Summary

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"If a nation can prosecute a war and at the same time exhibit tolerance and understanding to those who have conscientious objections to war, then its civilization is healthy and flourishing."1  
- General Lewis B. Hershey, Director, Selective Service System

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"¸¸ÀÏ ÇÑ ±¹°¡°¡ ÀüÀïÀ» ±â¼ÒÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖÀ¸¸ç µ¿½Ã¿¡ ÀüÀï¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¸¦ °¡Áø »ç¶÷µé¿¡°Ô °ü¿ë°ú ÀÌÇØ¸¦ Ç¥½ÃÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù¸é, ±× ¹®¸íÀº °Ç°­ÇÏ¸ç ¹øÃ¢ÇÒ °ÍÀÌ´Ù." 
- ·çÀ̽º B. Çã½Ã À屺, ´ëüº¹¹«Á¦µµ ±¹Àå 

The United States has always provided for those who were conscientiously opposed to bearing arms in the military. Until 1940 conscientious objectors came predominately from the historic peace churches. Throughout the Vietnam War era the legal, political, and religious view of conscientious objection changed dramatically. Several Supreme Court decisions during the Vietnam conflict led to a substantial increase in the number of men classified as conscientious objectors with either a mainstream religious or secular background. In addition to the Court's re-interpretation of the conscientious objection qualifications, many mainstream religious groups actively endorsed conscientious objection, reflecting their members' growing disillusionment with war.2 This mainstream support brought conscientious objection out of the religious and social margins and into mainstream America.

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¹ÌÇÕÁß±¹Àº ¾îÁ¦³ª ±º´ë¿¡¼­ ¹«±â¸¦ µå´Â °Í¿¡ ´ëÇØ ¾ç½ÉÀûÀ¸·Î °ÅºÎÇÏ´Â »ç¶÷µéÀ» °í·ÁÇϰí ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. 1940³â ±îÁö, ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀº ¾ÐµµÀûÀ¸·Î ¿ª»çÀûÀÎ ÆòÈ­ ±³È¸µé·ÎºÎÅÍ ³ª¿Ô´Ù. º£Æ®³² ÀüÀï ½Ã±â¸¦ ÅëÆ²¾î¼­ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¹ý·üÀû, Á¤Ä¡Àû ¹× Á¾±³Àû ½Ã°¢Àº ±ØÀûÀ¸·Î º¯È­Çß´Ù. º£Æ®³² ÀüÀï ÁßÀÇ ¸î °¡Áö ¿¬¹æ´ë¹ý¿øÀÇ ÆÇ°áµéÀÌ ÁÖ·ù Á¾±³ ¶Ç´Â ¼¼¼ÓÀû ¹è°æÀ» °¡Áø ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚµé·Î ºÐ·ùµÇ´Â »ç¶÷µéÀÇ ¼ýÀÚ¿¡ À־ »ó´çÇÑ Áõ°¡¿¡ À̸£°Ô Çß´Ù. ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ ÀÚ°Ý¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¹ýÁ¤ÀÇ ÀçÇØ¼®¿¡ µ¡ºÙ¿©¼­, ¸¹Àº Áê·ù Á¾±³ Áý´ÜµéÀÌ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¸¦ Àû±ØÀûÀ¸·Î ÁöÁöÇϸ鼭 ±×µé ±¸¼º¿øÀÇ ÀüÀï¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Áõ°¡Çϴ ȯ¸ê°¨À» ¹Ý¿µÇß´Ù. ÀÌ·± ÁÖµÈ ÁöÁö´Â ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¸¦ Á¾±³Àû ¹× »çȸÀû Å׵θ®¿¡¼­ ¹Ì±¹ÀÇ ÁÖ·ù »çȸ·Î À̲ø¾î ³»¾ú´Ù.

Definitions

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A conscientious objector (C.O.) was a person who, based on religious or moral principles, refused to fight in the military. Unlike draft resisters, who often went "underground" or fled the country to avoid military service, conscientious objectors worked within the legally established Selective Service System (S.S.S.). A man with a C.O. classification was not exempted from service; in place of combatant military service, C.O.s were required to perform either non-combatant military duty (Selective Service designation I-A-O) or alternate civilian service (I-O). During the Vietnam conflict there were three categories of conscientious objectors. The first, and most numerous, was I-O. Men classified as I-Os were unwilling to perform any military service, opting instead to fulfill their obligation through civilian public service.3 Men classified I-A- O objected to fighting in the military, but not to serving in it.4 They were assigned non-combatant roles in the military, usually serving as medics. Third, the military provided for servicemen to be honorably discharged as conscientious objectors. Even with the low morale at the depths of the Vietnam conflict, this last category was numerically insignificant.

¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚ (CO)´Â Á¾±³Àû ¶Ç´Â µµ´öÀû ¿ø¸®µéÀ» ±Ù°Å·Î ±º´ë¿¡¼­ ½Î¿ï °ÍÀ» °ÅºÎÇÏ´Â »ç¶÷À̾ú´Ù. Á¾Á¾ º´¿ªÀ» ȸÇÇÇϱâ À§ÇÏ¿© "ÀáÇà"Çϰųª ³ª¶ó¿¡¼­ µµ¸Á°¡´ø ¡º´ °ÅºÎÀÚµé°ú´Â, ´Þ¸® ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀº ¹ý·üÀûÀ¸·Î È®¸³µÈ ´ëüº¹¹«Á¦µµ(SSS)ÀÇ Å׵θ® ¾È¿¡¼­ Ȱµ¿ÇÏ¿´´Ù. COºÐ·ù¸¦ °¡Áø »ç¶÷ÀÌ Àǹ«·ÎºÎÅÍ ¸éÁ¦µÇ´Â °ÍÀº ¾Æ´Ï¾ú´Ù; ÀüÅõ¿øÀ¸·Î¼­ÀÇ º´¿ª ´ë½Å¿¡ COµéÀº ºñÀüÅõ¿øÀ¸·Î¼­ÀÇ ¿ª¹« (´ëüº¹¹«ÁöÁ¤ I-A-O) ¶Ç´Â ´ëü ¹Î°£ ºÀ»ç (I-O)¸¦ ¼öÇàÇÒ °ÍÀÌ Àǹ«È­µÇ¾ú´Ù. º£Æ®³² ÀüÀï Áß¿¡´Â ¼¼°¡Áö ¹üÁÖÀÇ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀÌ Á¸ÀçÇß¾ú´Ù. ù°´Â, °¡Àå ¸¹Àº ¼ýÀڷμ­, I-O¿´´Ù. I-O·Î ºÐ·ùµÈ »ç¶÷µéÀº ¾î¶²ÇÑ º´¿ªµµ ¼öÇàÇÒ ¶æÀÌ ¾ø¾úÀ¸¸ç, ´ë½Å¿¡ ¹Î°£ °ø°ø ºÀ»ç¸¦ ÅëÇÏ¿© ±×µéÀÇ Àǹ«¸¦ ÀÌÇàÇϰíÀÚ ÇÏ¿´´Ù. I-A-O·Î ºÐ·ùµÈ »ç¶÷µéÀº ±º´ë¿¡¼­ ½Î¿ì±â¸¦ °ÅºÎÇÏ¿´À¸³ª, ±º´ë¿¡ º¹¹«Çϱ⸦ °ÅºÎÇÏÁö´Â ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. ±×µéÀº ±º´ë¿¡¼­ ºñÀüÅõ¿øÀÇ ¿ªÇÒ¿¡ ¹èÄ¡µÇ¾úÀ¸¸ç ÁÖ·Î À§»ýº´À» ´ã´çÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¼¼¹øÂ°´Â, ±º´ë°¡ ±ºÀÎÀ» ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀڷμ­ ¸í¿¹ Á¦´ë ¹Þµµ·Ï ±ÔÁ¤ÇÏ¿´´Ù. º£Æ®³² ÀüÀïÀÌ ÇÑâ Áß¿¡ ³·Àº »ç±â¿¡µµ ºÒ±¸Çϰí ÀÌ ¸¶Áö¸· ¹üÁÖ´Â ¼ýÀÚÀûÀ¸·Î ¹Ì¹ÌÇÏ¿´´Ù.

Historiography

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Historians have yet to tackle conscientious objection to Vietnam with the same tenacity as they have written about objectors to previous wars. The best and most recent book that deals with Vietnam War conscientious objection is by Charles C. Moskos and John Whiteclay Chambers II.5 Their 1993 study is broad, examining conscientious objection in a number of countries, including America. However, because they have cast their net so wide, the Vietnam period only receives cursory treatment. The only history solely about Vietnam-era conscientious objection is a 1990 master's thesis by Jean Mansavage.6 Mansavage focuses on alternate service and the increasing secularization of conscientious objection, largely ignoring the role of the churches during the Vietnam era. This oversight, as well as a number of factual inconsistencies, reduces the usefulness of her study. Scholars have approached the C.O. question from a number of angles. Stuart Showalter analyzed the response of the press to C.O.s during the Vietnam war.7  Ronald Parks wrote a history of conscientious objectors from the United Methodist Church.8 Parks' work was the only mainstream study of a single religious group with regards to conscientious objection. Beverly Houghton examined C.O.s from a sociological point of view.9 Conscientious objection is usually discussed in books written on conscription, such as 's The Draft, published in 1993.10  Naturally, conscientious objection is only a small portion of these much broader studies. Of interest to anyone studying the religious response to the Vietnam war is Mitchell K. Hall's Because of Their Faith, his 1990 study of the group Clergy and Laymen Concerned about Vietnam (CALCAV).11 Hall documents the history of this large ecumenical anti-war group and analyzes the spectrum of responses to the Vietnam war within the religious community.

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¿ª»ç°¡µéÀº ¾ÆÁ÷µµ º£Æ®³² ÀüÀï¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¸¦ °ú°ÅÀÇ ÀüÀïµé¿¡ ´ëÇÑ °ÅºÎÀڵ鿡 ´ëÇØ ±â·ÏÇÏ¿´´ø °Í°ú ¶È°°Àº °íÁýÀ¸·Î ´Ù·ç¾î¾ß¸¸ ÇÒ °ÍÀÌ´Ù. º£Æ®³² ÀüÀï ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¸¦ ´Ù·ç´Â °¡Àå ÈǸ¢Çϸç ÃÖ±ÙÀÇ Ã¥Àº Charles C. Moskos ¿Í John Whiteclay Chambers II¿¡ ÀÌÇÑ °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ±×µéÀÇ 1993³â ¿¬±¸´Â ¹Ì±¹À» ºñ·ÔÇÑ ¿©·¯ ±¹°¡µé¿¡¼­ ±¤¹üÀ§ÇÏ°í ±íÀÌÀÖ´Â ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¸¦ ´Ù·ç°í ÀÖ´Ù. ±×·¯³ª ±×µéÀº ¹üÀ§¸¦ ³Ê¹« ³Ð°Ô ¹ú¿© ³õ¾Æ¼­, º£Æ®³² ÀüÀï ±â°£Àº ´ÜÁö °£·«ÇÏ°Ô ´Ù·ç°í ÀÖ´Ù. ¿ÀÁ÷ º£Æ®³² ÀüÀï ±â°£ÀÇ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¿¡ °üÇÑ À¯ÀÏÇÑ ¿ª»ç´Â Jean MansavageÀÇ 1990³â ¼®»ç ³í¹®ÀÌ´Ù. Mansavage´Â ´ëü º¹¹«¿Í ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÇ Áõ°¡ÇÏ´Â ¼¼¼ÓÈ­¿¡ ÃÐÁ¡À» µÎ°í ÀÖÀ¸¸ç, º£Æ®³² ÀüÀï ±â°£ ÁßÀÇ ±³È¸µéÀÇ ¿ªÇÒÀº ÁÖ·Î ¹«½ÃÇϰí ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ÀÌ·¯ÇÑ °£°ú¸¸ÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó ¿©·¯°¡ÁöÀÇ »ç½Ç»óÀÇ ºÒÀÏÄ¡´Â ±×³àÀÇ ¿¬±¸ÀÇ È¿¿ë¼ºÀ» °¨¼â½ÃŰ´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ÇÐÀÚµéÀº CO ¹®Á¦¸¦ ¿©·¯ °¢µµ·Î Á¢±ÙÇÏ¿©¿Ô´Ù.  Stuart Showalter´Â º£Æ®³² ÀüÀï ÁßÀÇ ¾ð·ÐµéÀÇ CO¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¹ÝÀÀÀ» ºÐ¼®ÇÏ¿´´Ù. Ronald Parks´Â ¿¬ÇÕ °¨¸®±³ÀÇ °üÁ¡¿¡¼­ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀڵ鿡 ´ëÇÑ ¿ª»ç¸¦ ±â·ÏÇÏ¿´´Ù. ParksÀÇ Àú¼­´Â ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¿Í °ü·ÃÇÏ¿© ´Ü ÇϳªÀÇ Á¾±³ Áý´Ü¿¡ °üÇÑ À¯ÀÏÇÑ ÁÖ·ùÀÇ ¿¬±¸¿´´Ù. Beverly HoughtonÀº COµéÀ» »çȸÇÐÀû °üÁ¡À¸·ÎºÎÅÍ ¿¬±¸ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ´Â ÁÖ·Î, 1993³â ¹ßÇàµÈ George Q. FlynnÀÇ [¡º´]°ú °°ÀÌ, ¡Áý¿¡ °üÇÏ¿© ±â·ÏÇÑ Ã¥µé¿¡¼­ ³íÀǵǾú´Ù. ´ç¿¬È÷µµ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ´Â ÀÌ·¯ÇÑ Á»´õ ±¤¹üÀ§ÇÑ ¿¬±¸µé¿¡¼­ ´ÜÁö Á¶±×¸¸ ºÐ·®À» Â÷ÁöÇÒ »ÓÀÌ´Ù. º£Æ®³² ÀüÀï¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Á¾±³°èÀÇ ¹ÝÀÀÀ» ¿¬±¸ÇÏ´Â ´©±¸¿¡°Ô¶óµµ Èï¹Ì°¡ ÀÖÀ» ÀÚ·á´Â Mitchell K. HallÀÇ "[±×µéÀÇ ½Å¾ÓÀ» ÀÌÀ¯·Î]"·Î¼­, º£Æ®³² ÀüÀï¿¡ °ü½ÉÀ» °¡Áø ¼ºÁ÷ÀÚµµ Æò½Åµµ ±×·ì(CALCAV)¿¡ ´ëÇÑ 1990³â ¿¬±¸ÀÌ´Ù. Hall´Â ÀÌ·± °Å´ëÇÑ º¹À½ÁÖÀÇÀû ¹ÝÀü Áý´ÜÀÇ ¿ª»ç¸¦ ±â·ÏÇϰí Á¾±³ °øµ¿Ã¼ ³»¿¡¼­ÀÇ º£Æ®³² ÀüÀï¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¹ÝÀÀµéÀÇ ´Ù¾ç¼ºÀ» ºÐ¼®ÇÑ´Ù.

Chapter Summary

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Chapter I examines the beginnings of religious conscientious objection, from the Roman era through the early twentieth century. Special attention is placed on the history of American conscientious objection, especially as America started to use large-scale conscription in the Civil War and World War I. Throughout this period in America, tolerance was reserved only for those members of the "historic peace churches."Only these few pacifists could gain C.O. status, leaving out other religious or secular objectors. Chapter II deals with the World War II C.O. experience. The 1940 Selective Service Act created the administrative system that remained intact throughout the Vietnam war. Also, World War II marked the first time conscientious objector status was granted based on individual belief, not affiliation with a particular pacifist church. Despite this, most objectors still were members of the historic peace churches. Some post-war legislative changes would set the stage for the legal challenges that would alter the nature of conscientious objection during the Vietnam war era. Á¦1ÀåÀº Á¾±³Àû ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÇ Åµ¿À» °ËÅäÇØº¸¸ç, ·Î¸¶Á¦±¹ ½Ã´ëºÎÅÍ 20¼¼±â ÃʱîÁö¸¦ ¸Á¶óÇÑ´Ù. ¹Ì±¹ÀÇ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÇ ¿ª»ç¿¡ Ưº°ÇÑ °ü½ÉÀ» µÎ¸ç, À̴ ƯÈ÷ ¹Ì±¹ÀÌ ³»Àü ¹× Á¦1Â÷ ¼¼°è´ëÀü¿¡¼­ ´ë±Ô¸ð ¡ÁýÀ» ½Ç½ÃÇÏ¿´±â ¶§¹®ÀÌ´Ù. ÀÌ ±â°£ Àü¹Ý¿¡ °ÉÃļ­ ¹Ì±¹¿¡¼­´Â, ¿ÀÁ÷ "¿ª»çÀû ÆòÈ­ ±³È¸µé"ÀÇ ±¸¼º¿øµéÀ» À§Çؼ­¸¸ °ü¿ëÀÌ À¯º¸µÇ¾ú´Ù. ¿ÀÁ÷ ÀÌµé ¼Ò¼öÀÇ ÆòÈ­ÁÖÀÇÀڵ鸸ÀÌ coÀÚ°ÝÀ» ȹµæÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ¾úÀ¸¸ç, ±âŸ Á¾±³ ¹× ¼¼¼ÓÀû °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀº ¹èÁ¦µÇ¾ú´Ù. Á¦2ÀåÀº Á¦2Â÷ ¼¼°è´ëÀü CO °æÇèÀ» ´Ù·é´Ù. 1940³â ´ëüº¹¹«¹ýÀÌ º£Æ®³² ÀüÀï¿¡ °ÉÃļ­±îÁöµµ ¼öÁ¤ÇÏÁö ¾ÊÀº ÇàÁ¤Àû Á¦µµ¸¦ ¸¸µé¾î ³Â´Ù. ¶ÇÇÑ Á¦2Â÷ ¼¼°è´ëÀü Áß¿¡ °³ÀÎÀÇ ¹ÏÀ½À» ±Ù°Å·ÎÇÏ´Â ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚ ÀÚ°ÝÀÌ Ã³À½À¸·Î ±â·ÏµÇ¾úÀ¸¸ç, ƯÁ¤ÇÑ ÆòÈ­ÁÖÀÇ ±³È¸¿Í ¿¬´ëÇÏÁö ¾ÊÀº °ÍÀ̾ú´Ù. ÀÌ·¯ÇÔ¿¡µµ ºÒ±¸ÇÏ°í ¿©ÀüÈ÷ ´ëºÎºÐÀÇ °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀº ¿ª»çÀû ÆòÈ­ ±³È¸µéÀÇ ±¸¼º¿øµéÀ̾ú´Ù. ÀϺΠÀüÈÄ ÀÔ¹ýÀÇ º¯È­´Â º£Æ®³² ÀüÀï ½Ã±â µ¿¾ÈÀÇ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÇ ¼º°ÝÀ» º¯È­½Ãų ¹ý·üÀûÀÎ µµÀüÀÇ ¹«´ë¸¦ ¸¶·ÃÇÏ¿´´Ù.

Chapter III is a legal history of conscientious objection during the Vietnam war. Two crucial Supreme Court cases, United States v. Seeger in 1965 and Welsh v. United Statesin 1970, radically altered the government's definition of religion and conscientious objection. A third case, Gillette v. United States,upheld the U.S. government's traditional position against selective conscientious objection, despite strong support from many religious groups. Chapter IV deals with the procedures of Vietnam-era conscientious objection by presenting an overview of the C.O. experience during this period. This includes an examination of the Selective Service System, the alternate work program, and statistics relevant to conscientious objection. Groups such as in-service objectors and non-combatants are also discussed. Chapter V examines the relationship between religious groups and conscientious objection. The religious response to the Vietnam war in general was quite varied. Most denominations showed at least some support for conscientious objection. Throughout the war, the percentage of C.O.s from historic peace churches fell significantly, largely because of a rise of C.O.s from mainstream churches or with no religious affiliation. The support of conscientious objection and the increase of mainstream C.O.s reflects mainstream America's dissatisfaction with war.

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Á¦3ÀåÀº º£Æ®³²Àü ÁßÀÇ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÇ ¹ý·üÀû ¿ª»çÀÌ´Ù. µÎ°¡ÁöÀÇ Áß´ëÇÑ ¿¬¹æ´ë¹ý¿ø ¼Ò¼Û°ÇÀÎ, 1965³âÀÇ [¹ÌÇÕÁß±¹ ´ë ½Ã°Å] ¹× 1970³âÀÇ [À£½¬ ´ë ¹ÌÇÕÁß±¹]Àº, Á¾±³¿Í ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Á¤ºÎÀÇ Á¤ÀǸ¦ »Ñ¸®ºÎÅÍ ¹Ù²Ù¾î ³õ¾Ò´Ù. ¼¼¹øÂ° ¼Ò¼ÛÀÎ, [Áú·¿ ´ë ¹ÌÇÕÁß±¹]°ÇÀº ¸¹Àº Á¾±³ ´ÜüµéÀÇ °­·ÂÇÑ ÁöÁö¿¡µµ ºÒ±¸Çϰí, ¼±ÅÃÀû ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¹ÌÇÕÁß±¹ Á¤ºÎÀÇ ÀüÅëÀû ÀÔÀåÀ» ÁöÁöÇÏ¿´´Ù. Á¦4ÀåÀº º£Æ®³²Àü ÁßÀÇ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÇ ÀýÂ÷µéÀ» ÀÌ ±â°£µ¿¾È CO °æÇèÀÇ °³¿ä¸¦ Á¦½ÃÇÔÀ¸·Î½á ´Ù·ç°í ÀÖ´Ù. À̰ÍÀº ´ëüº¹¹«Á¦µµÀÇ °ËÅä, ´ëüȰµ¿ ÇÁ·Î±×·¥ ¹× ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¿Í »ó°ü¼ºÀ» °¡Áø Åë°èµéÀ» Æ÷ÇÔÇÑ´Ù. º¹¹«Áß °ÅºÎÀÚµé°ú ºñÀüÅõ¿ø°ú °°Àº ±×·ìµé ¶ÇÇÑ ³íÀǵȴÙ. Á¦5ÀåÀº Á¾±³ ´Üüµé°ú ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÇ °ü°è¸¦ °ËÅäÇÑ´Ù. º£Æ®³² ÀüÀï¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Á¾±³Àû ¹ÝÀÀÀº ÀϹÝÀûÀ¸·Î ¸Å¿ì ´Ù¾çÇÏ¿´´Ù. ´ëºÎºÐÀÇ ±³ÆÄµéÀº Àû¾îµµ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÀϺΠÁöÁö¸¦ º¸¿´´Ù. ÀÌ ÀüÀïÀ» ÅëÆ²¾î¼­, ¿ª»çÀû ÆòÈ­ ±³È¸µéÀÇ COºñÀ²Àº »ó´çÈ÷ ¶³¾îÁ³À¸¸ç, ÁÖ·Î ÁÖ·ù ±³È¸µéÀÇ ¶Ç´Â ºñ Á¾±³Àû ¿¬´ë¸¦ °¡Áø COÀÇ Áõ°¡ ¶§¹®ÀÌ´Ù. ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÇ ÁöÁö ¹× ÁÖ·ù»çȸÀÇ COµéÀÇ Áõ°¡´Â ÀüÀï¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÁÖ·ù ¹Ì±¹ÀεéÀÇ ºÒ¸¸À» ¹Ý¿µÇÑ´Ù.

Footnotes


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1.Selective Service System, Evaluation of the Selective Service Program, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1956), 205. 

2.  In this context, "mainstream" religious groups refers to the large, mainline Jewish, Protestant, and Catholic denominations. Mainstream groups are contrasted with the historic peace churches, which have existed on the periphery of Protestantism.

3.The Universal Military Training and Service Act of 1951 (Statutes at Large 65 (1951):86) provided for a system of alternate service for C.O.s classified I-O. 

4. To the Selective Service, a I-A-O was nearly the same as a I-A (fit for regular duty). In official statistics the two groups were lumped together and I-A-Os counted towards meeting monthly draft quotas. 

5. Charles C. Moskos and John Whiteclay Chambers II, The New Conscientious Objection:From Sacred to Secular Resistance(New York:Oxford University Press, 1993). 

6. Jean Mansavage, "Alternatives to Arms 1-W Conscientious Objectors to the Vietnam War" (master's thesis, Texas A&M University, 1990).

7. Showalter, Stuart Wesley. "Coverage of Conscientious Objectors to the Vietnam War: An Analysis of the Editorial Content of American Magazines, 1964-1972 (Ph.D. diss., University of Texas, Austin, 1975).

8. Ronald S. Parks, "The United Methodist Conscientious Objector in the Vietnam War Era:A Study of Ethical Formulation and Implementation" (Ph.D. diss., Drew University, 1992). 

9. Beverly D. Houghton, "Conscientious Objection:Socialization and Social Deviance" (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1973). 

10. George Q. Flynn, The Draft, 1940-1973(Lawrence, Kan.: University Press of Kansas, 1993).

11. Mitchell K. Hall, Because of Their Faith:CALCAV and Religious Opposition to the Vietnam War,(New York: Columbia University Press, 1990).

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[ Introduction ] 1. The Development of Conscientious Objection Through World War I ] 2. World War II and the Origin of Modern Conscientious Objection ] 3. Legal History of Conscientious Objection ] 4. Conscientious Objection During the Vietnam War ] 5. The Religious Response to Conscientious Objection ] 6. Conclusion ] Tables and Charts ] Bibliography ]


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