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"By Reason of Religious Training and Belief..."


A History of 

Conscientious Objection and Religion

 during the Vietnam War


By Karl D. Nelson

Chapter IV: 

Conscientious Objection During the Vietnam War

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Á¦ 4 Àå: 

º£Æ®³² ÀüÀï ÁßÀÇ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ

The Draft

Demographics

The Average C.O.

Obtaining a C.O. Classification

In-service Objectors

I-A-Os

Alternative Service

Selective Conscientious  Objection

Conclusion

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The Draft

Demographics

The Average C.O.

Obtaining a C.O. Classification

In-service Objectors

I-A-Os

Alternative Service

Selective Conscientious  Objection

Conclusion

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Three Supreme Court cases provided the foundation for Vietnam-era conscientious objection. Although the Court influenced conscientious objection more than any other single institution, the procedures of the selective service also remained important. There were other types of conscientious objection, namely in-service objection, non-combatant objection, and selective objection. 

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´ë¹ý¿øÀÇ ¼Ò¼ÛµéÀº º£Æ®³² ÀüÀï ½Ã±âÀÇ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ±âÃʸ¦ ¸¶·ÃÇÏ¿´´Ù. ºñ·Ï ¹ý¿øÀÌ ´Ù¸¥ ¾î¶² À¯ÀÏÇÑ ±â°üº¸´Ùµµ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¿¡ ´õ ¸¹Àº ¿µÇâÀ» ÁÖ¾úÁö¸¸, ´ëüº¹¹« ÀýÂ÷µé ¿ª½Ã Áß¿äÇß´Ù. ´Ù¸¥ ÇüÅÂÀÇ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ, Áï, Çö¿ª °ÅºÎ, ºñÀüÅõ¿ø °ÅºÎ ¹× ¼±ÅÃÀû °ÅºÎ µîÀÌ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù.

The Draft 

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The Selective Service System in the early 1960s was largely unchanged from its World War II counterpart. In large part this was due to the influence of the S.S.S.'s long-time director, Gen. Lewis B. Hershey. Hershey's hand personally guided the S.S.S. for over a quarter of a century. Hershey, a state's rights advocate, managed to retain the decentralized system he had helped build in the 1940s. Because of the decentralized nature of the Selective Service, local draft boards also often varied a great deal in their treatment of conscientious objectors. Some granted conscientious objector classifications frequently. Others rarely placed men into the I-O category. The draft law was renewed by Congress in 1963 without much debate, as it had for the previous twelve years.1 During the 1950s the S.S.S. had become, in Hershey's words, a "channeler," deferring men into selected fields, like science and farming.2¡¡On the eve of the Vietnam War the S.S.S. deferred 350,000 students, 1,300,000 fathers, 60,000 industrial workers, and 20,000 farmers.3 Increased fighting in Southeast Asia ended some of these large-scale deferments. The military drastically increased its ranks, from 2,655,000 men in 1965 to over 3,500,000 three years later.4 Much of this increase came from increased S.S.S. draft calls.5 During 1966 both the president and the Congress formed committees to study draft reform.6 Both groups advocated reform of the Selective Service, but Congress proved more conservative when it renewed the draft in 1967. Aside from the deletion of the "Supreme Being" clause, Congress only performed minor adjustments to the deferment list.7 Also, local boards had some age and retirement restrictions placed upon them. Women became eligible for service on local boards for the first time, as well.8 The continuing pressures of Vietnam prompted a number of Selective Service changes. In 1968, graduate school deferments were canceled,9and in 1970 the S.S.S. stopped issuing new occupational, agricultural, and paternity deferments.10 The most visible response by the Nixon administration to the deferment problem was the creation of a lottery system in 1969. The lottery was to end the inequity of deferments by placing all eligible men in a pool and assigning them an induction number based on their birthdate. The first lottery of men born from 1944 to 1950 was held in December of 1969.11 Along with the lottery, President Nixon also made changes to S.S.S. headquarters. Nixon replaced General Hershey, director for nearly thirty years, with Curtis Tarr, a former college president and Air Force official.12 Tarr modernized an organization where, in the words of historian George Flynn, "[t]he people were ancient, the building was collapsing, and the office system was something out of a Dickens novel."13 When the time came to renew the draft in 1971, only the military wholeheartedly supported renewal.14 Many others looked toward the future and an all-volunteer military.15 Instead of the usual four-year extension, Nixon only asked for, and received, two years of conscription authority.16 As America backed out of Vietnam, draft calls fell to under 40,000 men in 1972 and 1973. By mid- 1973, the draft was over. 

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1960³â ´ëÀÇ ´ëüº¹¹«Á¦µµ´Â ´ëüÀûÀ¸·Î Á¦2Â÷ ¼¼°è´ëÀü ´ç½ÃÀÇ ³»¿ëÀ¸·ÎºÎÅÍ °ÅÀÇ º¯È­°¡ ¾ø¾ú´Ù. À̰ÍÀº ÁÖ·Î ¿À·§µ¿¾È SSSÀÇ ±¹ÀåÀÌ´ø Lewis B. HersheyÀ屺ÀÇ ¿µÇâ¿¡ ±âÀÎÇÏ¿´´Ù. 4¹Ý¼¼±â°¡ ³Ñ´Â µ¿¾È HersheyÀÇ ¼ÕÀÌ °³ÀÎÀûÀ¸·Î SSS¸¦ À̲ø¾î °¬´ø °ÍÀÌ´Ù.  Hershey´Â ±¹°¡ÀÇ ±Ç¸®µéÀÇ ¿ËÈ£Àڷμ­, 1940³â´ë¿¡ ±×°¡ ±¸ÃàÇϴµ¥ ÀÏÁ¶ÇÏ¿´´ø ºÐ»êÈ­µÈ Á¦µµ¸¦ À¯ÁöÇÏ·Á°í ¾Ö½è´Ù. ´ëüº¹¹«ÀÇ Áö¹æ ºÐ»êÀû ¼º°ÝÀ¸·Î, Áö¿ª ¡º´ À§¿øÈ¸ ¶ÇÇÑ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚ µéÀ» Ãë±ÞÇÔ¿¡ À־ ´Ù¾çÇÑ º¯È­°¡ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ÀϺδ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ µî±ÞµéÀ» ÀÚÁÖ ÀÎÁ¤ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ´Ù¸¥ Áö¿ªµéÀº »ç¶÷µéÀ» °ÅÀÇ I-OÀÇ ¹üÁÖ¿¡ ³ÖÁö ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. ¡º´¹ýÀº ÀÌÀüÀÇ 12³â°£ ±×·¯ÇßµíÀÌ ¸¹Àº Åä·Ð ¾øÀÌ 1963³â ÀÇȸ¿¡¼­ °³Á¤µÇ¾ú´Ù.  1950³â´ë¿¡ SSS´Â, HersheyÀÇ ¸»¿¡ µû¸£¸é, »ç¶÷µéÀ» ¼±ÅÃµÈ ºÐ¾ßµé·Î À¯¿¹ÇØÁÖ´Â, °úÇÐÀ̳ª ³ó¾÷¿¡¼­Ã³·³,  "µµ¶ûÆÄ±â"¿´´Ù. º£Æ®³² ÀüÀï Á÷Àü, SSS´Â 350,000¸íÀÇ Çлýµé, 1,300,000¸íÀÇ °¡Àåµé, 60,000¸íÀÇ »ê¾÷ ³ëµ¿ÀÚµé, ±×¸®°í 20,000¸íÀÇ ³óºÎµéÀ» À¯¿¹Çß´Ù. ³²µ¿ ¾Æ½Ã¾Æ¿¡¼­ÀÇ ÀüÅõ°¡ Áõ°¡ÇÏÀÚ ÀÌ·± ´ë±Ô¸ð À¯¿¹ÀÇ ÀϺδ ÁߴܵǾú´Ù. ±º´ë´Â ¿¹ºñº´·ÂÀ» 1965³âÀÇ 2,655,000¸í¿¡¼­ »ï³â µÚ¿¡ 3,500,000¸íÀ¸·Î Áõ°­ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ÀÌ·¯ÇÑ Áõ°¡ÀÇ ´ëºÎºÐÀº SSSÀÇ Áõ°¡µÈ ¡º´ ¼ÒÁýÀ¸·ÎºÎÅÍ ³ª¿Ô´Ù. 1966³â¿¡´Â ´ëÅë·É°ú ÀÇȸ°¡ µ¿½Ã¿¡ ¡º´ °³ÇõÀ» ¿¬±¸Çϱâ À§Çؼ­ À§¿øÈ¸µéÀ» ¼³Ä¡ÇÏ¿´´Ù. µÎ ±×·ìÀº ´ëüº¹¹«ÀÇ °³ÇõÀ» ÁöÁöÇÏ¿´À¸³ª, ÀÇȸ´Â 1967³â ¡º´À» °»½ÅÇÏ¿´À» ¶§ Á»´õ º¸¼öÀûÀ̾ú´Ù. "Àý´ëÀû Á¸Àç" Á¶Ç×°ú º°µµ·Î, ÀÇȸ´Â À¯¿¹ ¸ñ·Ï¿¡ ¿ÀÁ÷ ¾à°£ÀÇ Á¶Á¤¸¸À» ÇàÇßÀ» »ÓÀ̾ú´Ù. ¶ÇÇÑ, Áö¿ª À§¿øÈ¸µéÀº °Å±â¿¡´Ù°¡ ÀϺΠ¿¬·É ¹× Á¦´ë Á¦ÇѵéÀ» µÎ¾ú´Ù. ÃÖÃÊ·Î ¿©¼ºµé ¿ª½Ã Áö¿ª À§¿øÈ¸¿¡ º¹¹« µî·ÏÀ» ÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ°Ô µÇ¾ú´Ù. º£Æ®³² ÀüÀïÀ¸·Î ÀÎÇÑ °è¼ÓµÇ´Â ¾Ð·Âµé ¶§¹®¿¡ ´ëü º¹¹«¿¡ ¼ö¸¹Àº º¯È­°¡ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. 1968³â¿¡, Á¹¾÷»ýµé¿¡ ´ëÇÑ À¯¿¹°¡ Ãë¼ÒµÇ¾úÀ¸¸ç, 1970³â¿¡´Â »õ·Î¿î Á÷¾÷Àû, ³ó¾÷Àû, ¹× °¡ÀåÀÇ À¯¿¹µéÀ» Áß´ÜÇÏ¿´´Ù. ´Ð½¼ Á¤ºÎ¿¡ ÀÇÇÑ À¯¿¹ ¹®Á¦¿¡ ´ëÇÑ  °¡Àå °¡½ÃÀûÀÎ ¹ÝÀÀÀº 1969³âÀÇ Ãß÷Á¦µµÀÇ Åº»ýÀ̾ú´Ù. Ãß÷Àº ¸ðµç ÀÚ°ÝÀÖ´Â »ç¶÷µéÀ» ÇÑ °÷ÀÇ ´ë±â¿­¿¡ ¸ð¾ÆµÎ°í ±×µéÀ» ±×µéÀÇ Ãâ»ýÀÏ¿¡ ±Ù°ÅÇÑ ¸ðº´ ¹øÈ£¸¦ ºÎ¿©ÇÔÀ¸·Î½á À¯¿¹ÀÇ ºÒÆòµîÀ» Á¾½Ä½ÃŰ´Â °ÍÀ̾ú´Ù. 1944³âºÎÅÍ 1950³â±îÁö Ãâ»ýÇÑ »ç¶÷µé¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Ã¹ ¹øÂ° Ãß÷Àº 1969³â 12¿ù¿¡ ÇàÇØÁ³´Ù. Ãß÷°ú ´õºÒ¾î, ´Ð½¼ ´ëÅë·ÉÀº ¶ÇÇÑ SSS º»ºÎµé¿¡ ´ëÇÑ º¯È­¸¦ ÁÖ¾ú´Ù. ´Ð½¼Àº, °ÅÀÇ »ï½Ê¿©³â µ¿¾È ±¹Àå´ø  Hershey À屺À», °ú°Å ´ëÇÐ ÃÑÀåÀÌ¸ç °ø±º Àå±³ÀÌ´ø Curtis Tarr·Î ±³Ã¼ÇÏ¿´´Ù. Tarr´Â, ¿ª»ç°¡ George FlynnÀÇ ¸»¿¡ µû¸£¸é, "»ç¶÷µéÀÌ ³°¾ÒÀ¸¸ç, ºôµùÀº Çã¹°¾îÁ® °¡°í ÀÖ¾úÀ¸¸ç, »ç¹« üÁ¦°¡ µðŲ½¼ÀÇ ¼Ò¼³ ¼Ó¿¡³ª ÀÖÀ» ¹ýÇÑ" ±â±¸¸¦ Çö´ëÈ­ÇÏ¿´´Ù. 1971³â ¡º´À» Àç°³ÇÒ ½Ã±â°¡ ¿ÔÀ» ¶§, ¿ÀÁ÷ ±º´ë¸¸ÀÌ Àü½ÉÀ¸·Î Àç°³¸¦ ¹Ý°å´Ù. ¸¹Àº ±âŸÀÇ »ç¶÷µéÀº ¹Ì·¡¿ÍÀüÀûÀ¸·Î Áö¿øÁ¦ÀÇ ±º´ë¸¦ ±â´ëÇÏ¿´´Ù. Åë»óÀûÀÎ 4³â°£ÀÇ ¿¬Àå ´ë½Å¿¡, ´Ð½¼Àº ¿ÀÁ÷ 2³â°£ÀÇ Â¡º´±ÇÀ» ¿ä±¸ÇÏ¿© ¾ò¾î³Â´Ù. ¹Ì±¹ÀÌ º£Æ®³²¿¡¼­ ö¼öÇϸ鼭, ¡º´ ¼ÒÁýÀº 1972³â°ú 1973³â¿¡ 40,000¸íÀ¸·Î ¶³¾îÁ³´Ù. 1973³â Á߹ݿ¡´Â ¡º´ÀÌ Á¾·áµÇ¾ú´Ù.

Demographics

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As American involvement in Vietnam heated up, the draft pool stood at over 2,000,000 available men.17 Somewhere in the neighborhood of five times that number were deferred for a variety of reasons. By June 30, 1967, over 1,000,000 men were deferred because of service in the National Guard or other military duty. A million and a half men held student deferments. Nearly 4,000,000 men had hardship or paternity deferments. Two and a half million were deemed unqualified for service, and a like number were qualified only in the time of a national emergency.18 During the pre-Seeger years of the Vietnam War, the numbers of conscientious objectors remained fairly steady. Also, until 1966, draft calls remained relatively low. When Seeger took effect in 1967 and 1968, the numbers of conscientious objectors began to rise.19 Another possible factor in the rise of C.O.s during 1967 and 1968 was the induction of about 300,000 men each year. Increased draft calls meant the local boards had to deal with more cases to fill their quotas. This increased the likelihood a C.O. case would be acted on by the draft board.20 When draft calls were low, men often chose to risk induction rather than filing for C.O. status. The increased risk of being drafted probably induced some men to file as C.O.s. It was possible that a registrant could be classified as a C.O. and also start alternate service in the same year, thereby counting for both I-O and I-W statistics. As the time between initial classification and induction into I-W (if it even happened) was variable, it is impossible to know exactly how many C.O.s there were for any given year. An examination of one religious denomination's pattern of conscientious objection throughout the Vietnam period shows a high correlation with the S.S.S. figures. Ronald Parks complied the C.O. statistics for United Methodists. As Table 4.3 shows, the number of objectors was low and fairly steady until 1968. By that year, when the Seeger decision was finally felt, the number of United Methodist C.O.s jumped from 36 in 1967 to 121 in 1968. The numbers climbed even higher during the next two years, hitting a peak of 165 in 1970. After 1970, objection fell off sharply, probably as a result of declining draft calls and decreased American involvement in Vietnam. As the numbers of C.O.s increased throughout the war, the ratio of men classified I-O as opposed to I-A (or I-A-O) fell. In the pre-war 1960s, there were over 200 men in the I-A class for every I-O, and the number slowly fell throughout the years preceding American involvement in Vietnam. By January 1965, the ratio had dropped to 190 I-As for every C.O. By the end of 1966, the ratio was 125:1. The figure rose slightly during 1967, a year of strong support for the war. By the end of 1968, the ratio was down to 108:1. Throughout 1969, the number fell even further, with only about 90 men receiving I-A classifications for every I-O.21 In December 1969 the Selective Service instituted a draft lottery. This meant that men were inducted based on their random sequence number. Conscientious objectors were treated like any other registrant. A C.O. remained in the I-O pool until his number was called, then he moved into alternate service.22 Interestingly, the S.S.S. reported that many registrants with high enough numbers to avoid the draft still proceeded with the C.O. process. Tarr noted that "[t]his seems to confirm the degree to which many young men feel strongly about professing matters of conscience and the seriousness of the beliefs of many who claim status as conscientious objectors."23 Until 1970, the Selective Service had not tracked the number of conscientious objectors on a monthly basis. But starting in June 1970, and continuing until June 1971, the S.S.S. kept detailed monthly statistics.24 The Welsh decision was released on June 15. Coincidentally, 14,440 men filed for conscientious objection that month, a substantially higher number than any other month in the year long survey. Of that number, 7,056 claims were considered by the local boards, and 2,785 men were classified I-O or I-A-O. It seems that the July spike in C.O. claims were likely not due to the Welsh decision. First, the decision was not released until mid-month, meaning that less than half of the C.O. claims could have been a result of Welsh.25 Also, the new regulations did not reach local boards until July 6. Finally, as Tarr points out, many students left either high school or college in June which canceled their student deferments.26 Without student deferments, many men would then apply for conscientious objector status. Yet if this were true, there would likely be a similar spike for June 1971. In June 1971 there was no jump in registrants (in fact, there was a slight decline in registrants), but there was a significant jump in claims considered and C.O. classifications. Another factor that might account for the discrepancy between the 1970 and 1971 figures was the events of spring 1970. American forces invaded Cambodia that spring, and soon after four college students protesting this invasion were killed by National Guard troops at Ohio's Kent State University. Both incidents outraged the public, and that anger could conceivably have translated into an increase in conscientious objection. ¡¡

¹Ì±¹ÀÇ º£Æ®³² °³ÀÔÀÌ ´Þ¾Æ ¿À¸£ÀÚ, ¡º´ ´ë±â¿­Àº 2,000,000¸í ÀÌ»óÀÇ °¡¿ëÇÑ ÀηÂÀ¸·Î ¿Ã¶ó °¬´Ù. ±× ¼ýÀÚÀÇ ´Ù¼¸ ¹è ÀÌ»óÀÇ »ç¶÷µéÀÌ ¿©·¯°¡Áö ÀÌÀ¯µé·Î¼­ À¯¿¹µÇ¾ú´Ù. 1967³â 6¿ù 30ÀÏ ¹«·Æ¿¡´Â 1,000,000¸í ÀÌ»óÀÌ ±¹°¡ ¼öºñ´ë ¶Ç´Â ±âŸ º´¿ª¿¡ º¹¹«ÇÔÀ¸·Î À¯¿¹µÇ¾ú´Ù. °ÅÀÇ 4,000,000¸íÀÇ ÀÌ¿øÀÌ »ýȰ°í ¶Ç´Â °¡ÀåÀ¸·Î¼­ À¯¿¹¸¦ ¹Þ¾Ò´Ù. 2,500,000¸íÀº º¹¹«¿¡ ºÎÀûÇÕÇÑ °ÍÀ¸·Î ¿©°ÜÁ³À¸¸ç, À¯»çÇÑ ¼ýÀÚ´Â ¿ÀÁ÷ ±¹°¡ ºñ»ó»çÅ ½Ã¿¡³ª ÀûÇÕÇÑ °ÍÀ¸·Î ¿©°ÜÁ³´Ù. º£Æ®³² ÀüÀï ÀÇ Seeger ÆÇ°á ½Ã±â ÀÌÀü ±â°£Àº, ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚ µéÀÇ ¼ýÀÚ°¡ »ó´çÈ÷ ²ÙÁØÈ÷ ¸Ó¹°·¯ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ¶ÇÇÑ, 1966³â ±îÁö´Â, ¡º´ ¼ÒÁýÀÌ ºñ±³Àû ³·Àº ÆíÀ̾ú´Ù. 1967³â ¹× 1968³â Seeger ÆÇ°áÀÌ ¹ßÈ¿µÇ¾úÀ» ¶§, ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÇ ¼ýÀÚµéÀº Áõ°¡Çϱ⠽ÃÀÛÇÏ¿´´Ù. 1967³â ¹× 1968³â µ¿¾ÈÀÇ COÀÇ Áõ°¡ÀÇ ´Ù¸¥ °¡´ÉÇÑ ¿äÀÎÀº ¸Å³â 300,000¸íÀÇ ¸ðº´À̾ú´Ù. Áõ°¡µÈ ¡º´ ¼ÒÁýµéÀº Áö¿ª À§¿øÈ¸µéÀÌ ±×µéÀÇ ÇÒ´ç·®À» ä¿ì±â À§ÇÏ¿© ´õ ¸¹Àº »ç·ÊµéÀ» ó¸®ÇØ¾ß ÇÔÀ» ÀǹÌÇß´Ù. À̰ÍÀº CO »ç·ÊµéÀÌ Â¡º´ À§¿øÈ¸¿¡ ÀÇÇØ¼­ °¡µ¿µÇ¾î¾ß ÇÒ °¡´É¼ºÀ» Áõ°¡½ÃÄ×´Ù. ¡º´ ¼ÒÁýÀÌ ³·À» ¶§´Â, »ç¶÷µéÀº ÈçÈ÷, CO µî±ÞÀ» ½ÅûÇϱ⠺¸´Ù´Â ¸ðº´ÀÇ À§ÇèÀ» °¨¼öÇϱ⸦ ¼±ÅÃÇÑ´Ù. ¡º´µÊ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Áõ°¡µÈ À§ÇèÀÌ ¾Æ¸¶µµ ÀϺΠ»ç¶÷µé¿¡°Ô CO¿¡ ½ÅûÇϵµ·Ï À¯µµÇÏ¿´À» °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ÇÑ µî·ÏÀÚ°¡ CO·Î ºÐ·ùµÇ°í ¶ÇÇÑ µ¿ÀÏÇÑ ÇØ¿¡ ´ëüº¹¹«¸¦ ½ÃÀÛÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, ±×·¯¹Ç·Î, I-O ¹× I-W¿¡ µ¿½Ã¿¡ °è»êµÇ¾úÀ» °¡´É¼ºµµ ÀÖÀ» °ÍÀÌ´Ù. I-W(À̰ÍÀÌ ¹ß»ýÇÏ¿´´Ù ÇÏ´õ¶óµµ)·ÎÀÇ Ãʱ⠺зù ¹×  ¸ðº´ »çÀÌÀÇ ½Ã±â°¡ º¯È­°¡ ÀÖÀ¸¹Ç·Î, ÁÖ¾îÁø ÇØ¿¡ Á¤È®ÇÏ°Ô ¸î ¸íÀÇ COµéÀÌ ÀÖ¾ú´ÂÁö ¾Ë±â´Â ºÒ°¡´ÉÇÏ´Ù. º£Æ®³²Àü ½Ã±â¸¦ Åëµé¾î¼­ ÇÑ Á¾±³ÀÇ Á¾ÆÄÀÇ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÇ ÇüÅ¿¡ °üÇÑ ¿¬±¸´Â SSSÀÇ ¼öÄ¡¿ÍÀÇ ³ôÀº »ó°ü°ü°è¸¦ º¸¿©ÁØ´Ù. Ronald Parks´Â °¨¸®±³ÀÇ CO Åë°è¸¦ ÀÛ¼ºÇß´Ù. Ç¥ 4.3ÀÌ º¸¿© ÁÖµíÀÌ, 1968³â ±îÁö´Â °ÅºÎÀÚ µéÀÇ ¼ýÀÚ°¡ ³·¾ÒÀ¸¸ç »ó´çÈ÷ ²ÙÁØÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±× ÇØ ±îÁö´Â, Seeger ÆÇ°áÀÌ ¸¶Ä§³» ÇǺηΠ´À²¸Á³À» ¶§, °¨¸®±³ÀÇ CO ¼öÄ¡´Â 1967³âÀÇ 36¸í¿¡¼­ 1968³âÀÇ 121¸íÀ¸·Î ¶Ù¾î ¿Ã¶ú´Ù. ±× ¼öÄ¡´Â ½ÉÁö¾î ´ÙÀ½ 2³â µ¿¾È ´õ¿í ³ôÀÌ ¿Ã¶ó°¬À¸¸ç, 1970³â¿¡ 165¸íÀ¸·Î ÀýÁ¤¿¡ ´ÞÇÏ¿´´Ù. 1970³â ÀÌÈÄ¿¡´Â, °ÅºÎ°¡ ±ÞÀÛ½º·´°Ô ¶³¾îÁ³À¸¸ç, ¾Æ¸¶µµ ¡º´ ¼ÒÁýÀÇ °¨¼Ò¿Í ¹Ì±¹ÀÇ º£Æ®³²Àü °³ÀÔÀÇ °¨¼ÒÀÇ °á°ú¿´À» °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ÀüÀï ³»³» COÀÇ ¼ýÀÚ´Â Áõ°¡ÇÑ ¹Ý¸é¿¡, I-A(¶Ç´Â I-A-O)¿Í´Â ¹Ý´ë·Î I-O·Î ºÐ·ùµÈ »ç¶÷µéÀÇ ºñÀ²Àº ¶³¾îÁ³´Ù. 1960³âÀÇ ÀüÀï ÀÌÀü¿¡, I-O ÇÑ ¸í´ç I-A µî±ÞÀÌ 200¸í ÀÌ»óÀ̾úÀ¸¸ç, ¼öÄ¡´Â ¹Ì±¹ÀÇ º£Æ®³² ÀüÀï °³ÀÔ¿¡ ¾Õ¼± ÇØµéÀ» ÅëÆ²¾î¼­ õõÈ÷ ¶³¾îÁ³´Ù. 1965³â 1¿ù¿¡, ºñÀ²Àº CO ´ç I-A´Â 190¸íÀ¸·Î ¶³¾îÁ³´Ù. 1966³â ¸» ¹«·Æ¿¡, ºñÀ²Àº 125:1À̾ú´Ù. ÀüÀïÀ» °­·ÂÈ÷ Áö¿øÇÏ´Â ÇØÀÎ 1967³â µ¿¾È¿¡ ¼öÄ¡´Â ¾à°£ »ó½ÂÇÏ¿´´Ù. 1968³â ¸»¿¡ ºñÀ²Àº 108:1·Î ¶³¾îÁ³´Ù. 1969³â ³»³», ¼öÄ¡´Â ´õ¿í´õ ¶³¾îÁ³À¸¸ç, °¢±â I-O¸¶´Ù I-A ºÐ·ù¸¦ ¹ÞÀº »ç¶÷µéÀº ´ÜÁö ¾à 90¸í Á¤µµ¿´´Ù. 1969³â 12¿ù ´ëüº¹¹«´Â ¡º´ Ãß÷À» ½ÃÇàÇÏ¿´´Ù. À̰ÍÀº »ç¶÷µéÀÌ ±×µéÀÇ ÀÓÀÇÀÇ ¹øÈ£ ¼ø¼­¿¡ µû¶ó ¸ðº´µÊÀ» ÀǹÌÇß´Ù. ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚ µéÀº ¿©Å¸ ´Ù¸¥ µî·ÏÀÚµéó·³ Ãë±ÞµÇ¾ú´Ù. ¾î¶² CO´Â ÀÌ ¹øÈ£°¡ ¼ÒÁýµÉ ¶§±îÁö I-O ´ë±â¿­¿¡ ¸Ó¹°·¯ ÀÖ¾úÀ¸¸ç, ±×¸®°í ³ª¼­ ±×´Â ´ëü º¹¹«¿¡ µé¾ú´Ù. Àç¹ÌÀÖ°Ôµµ, SSS´Â ¡º´À» ÇÇÇϰíÀÚ ÇÏ´Â ¾î´À Á¤µµ ³ôÀº ¹øÈ£¸¦ Áö´Ñ ¸¹Àº µî·ÏÀÚ µéÀº ¿©ÀüÈ÷ CO󸮸¦ ¹â°í ÀÖ´Ù°í º¸°íÇß´Ù. Tarr´Â "À̰ÍÀº ¸¹Àº ÀþÀº »ç¶÷µéÀÌ ¾ç½ÉÀÇ ¹®Á¦µéÀ» °í¹éÇÔ¿¡ ´ëÇØ °­·ÄÈ÷ ´À³¢´Â Á¤µµ¿Í, ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚµé·Î¼­ÀÇ µî±ÞÀ» ÁÖÀåÇÏ´Â ¸¹Àº »ç¶÷µéÀÇ ½Å³äÀÇ ÁøÁöÇÔÀ» È®ÀνÃÄÑÁÖ´Â °Íó·³ º¸ÀδÙ"°í ÁÖ¸ñÇß´Ù. 1970³â ±îÁö, ´ëüº¹¹«´Â ¿ùº° ±âÁØÀ¸·Î ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀÇ ¼öÄ¡¸¦ ÃßÀûÇÏÁö ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. ±×·¯³ª 1970³â 6¿ùºÎÅÍ ½ÃÀÛÇÏ¿©, ±×¸®°í 1971³â 6¿ù±îÁö, SSS´Â ÀÚ¼¼ÇÑ ¿ùº° Åë°è¸¦ »êÃâÇÏ¿´´Ù. Welsh ÆÇ°áÀº 6¿ù 15ÀÏ ¹ßÇ¥µÇ¾ú´Ù. °ø±³·Ó°Ôµµ, 14,440¸íÀÌ ±× ´Þ¿¡ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¸¦ ½ÅûÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, Àϳ⠰£ÀÇ ±ä °üÃø¿¡¼­ ´Ù¸¥ ¾î¶² ´Þ º¸´Ùµµ »ó´çÈ÷ ³ôÀº ¼öÄ¡¿´´Ù. ÀÌ ¼öÄ¡µé Áß¿¡¼­ 7,056¸íÀÇ ÁÖÀåµéÀÌ Áö¿ª À§¿øÈ¸µé¿¡¼­ ´Ù·ç¾îÁ³À¸¸ç, 2,785¸íÀÌ I-O ¶Ç´Â I-A-O·Î ºÐ·ùµÇ¾ú´Ù. CO ÁÖÀåµé¿¡¼­ 7¿ùÀÇ ±ÞÁõÀº Welsh ÆÇ°áÀÌ ¿øÀÎÀÌ ¾Æ´Ñ °¡´É¼ºÀÌ ÀÖ´Â °Íó·³ º¸ÀδÙ. ¶ÇÇÑ, »õ·Î¿î ±ÔÁ¤µéÀÌ 7¿ù 6ÀϱîÁö Áö¿ª À§¿øÈ¸¿¡ µµ´ÞÇÏÁö ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. ¸¶Áö¸·À¸·Î, Tarr°¡ ÁöÀûÇϵíÀÌ, ÇлýÀ¸·Î¼­ÀÇ À¯¿¹¸¦ Ãë¼ÒÇÑ ¸¹Àº ÇлýµéÀÌ °íµîÇб³³ª ´ëÇб³¸¦ 6¿ù¿¡ ¶°³µ´Ù´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù. Çлý À¯¿¹µéÀÌ ¾ø´Ù¸é, ¸¹Àº »ç¶÷µéÀÌ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚ µî±ÞÀ» ½ÅûÇÏ¿´À» °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ±×·¯³ª À̰ÍÀÌ »ç½ÇÀ̶ó¸é, 1971³â 6¿ù¿¡µµ À¯»çÇÑ ±ÞÁõÀÌ ÀÖÀ» °¡´É¼ºÀÌ ÀÖ´Ù. 1971³â 6¿ù¿¡´Â µî·ÏÀÚµéÀÇ ±ÞÁõÀÌ ¾øÀ¸³ª(»ç½Ç, µî·ÏÀÚÀÇ °æ¹ÌÇÑ °¨¼Ò°¡ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù),  ´Ù·ç¾îÁø ÁÖÀåµé°ú CO ºÐ·ùµéÀÇ »ó´çÇÑ Áõ°¡°¡ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. 1970³â ¹× 1971³â »çÀÌÀÇ ¼öÄ¡ÀÇ Â÷À̸¦ ¼³¸íÇÒ ¼öµµ ÀÖ´Â ´Ù¸¥ ¿äÀÎÀº 1970³â º½ÀÇ »ç°ÇµéÀ̾ú´Ù. ¹Ì±¹ ±º´ë°¡ ±× ÇØ º½ įº¸µð¾Æ¸¦ ħ°øÇßÀ¸¸ç, °ð À̾ ÀÌ Ä§·«¿¡ Ç×ÀÇÇÏ´Â 4°³ ´ëÇÐÀÇ ÇлýµéÀÌ ±¹°¡ ¼öºñ´ë º´·Âµé¿¡ ÀÇÇØ¼­ ¿ÀÇÏÀÌ¿ÀÀÇ ÄËÆ® ÁÖ¸³´ëÇп¡¼­ »ìÇØµÇ¾ú´Ù. µÎ °¡Áö »ç°ÇµéÀÌ ´ëÁßÀ» ºÐ³ëÄÉ ÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, ±× ºÐ³ë°¡ ¾Æ¸¶µµ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÇ Áõ°¡·Î ÇØ¼®µÇ¾úÀ» ¼öµµ ÀÖÀ» °ÍÀÌ´Ù.
Looking at the broader picture, there was a substantial jump in the number of men classified I-O, from 15,855 in 1969 to 28,188 in 1970. The numbers were even higher in 1971 (36,713), but dropped off significantly in 1972 and 1973 as the draft wound down. It is difficult to determine how much the Welsh decision affected these numbers. Obviously, Welsh only affected the 1970 statistics from mid-June on, and as the monthly figures showed, the rest of the year remained very constant. Tarr mentions that he did not belief Welsh caused more C.O. applications, but that it probably had "influenced local boards to classify more of those who do apply into I-O."27 

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Àü¹ÝÀûÀÎ »óȲÀ¸·Î º¸¾Æ¼­, 1969³â 15,855¸íÀ¸·ÎºÎÅÍ 1970³âÀÇ 28,188¸í±îÁö , I-O·Î ºÐ·ùµÈ »ç¶÷µéÀÇ ¼öÄ¡ÀÇ »ó´çÇÑ Áõ°¡°¡ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. 1971³â(36,713¸í)¿¡´Â ¼öÄ¡°¡ ÈξÀ ´õ ³ô¾ÒÀ¸³ª, 1972³â ¹× 1973³â¿¡´Â ¡º´ÀÌ ÁÙ¾îµé¸é¼­ ÇöÀúÇÏ°Ô ³»·Á°¬´Ù. Welsh ÆÇ°áÀÌ ÀÌµé ¼öÄ¡¿¡ ¾ó¸¶³ª ¿µÇâÀ» ÁÖ¾ú´ÂÁö¸¦ Á¤Çϱâ´Â ¾î·Æ´Ù. ¸í¹éÈ÷ ¸»Çؼ­, Welsh ÆÇ°áÀº 1970³â Åë°è¸¦ ¿ÀÁ÷ 6¿ù Áß¹Ý ÀÌÈĺÎÅÍ ¿µÇâÀ» ÁÖ¾úÀ¸¸ç, ±×¸®°í ¿ùº° ¼öÄ¡°¡ º¸¿©ÁÖµíÀÌ, ±× ÇØÀÇ ³ª¸ÓÁö´Â ¸Å¿ì ²ÙÁØÇÏ°Ô ¸Ó¹°·¯ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. Tarr´Â Welsh ÆÇ°áÀÌ ´õ ¸¹Àº CO ½ÅûµéÀ» ¾ß±âÇÏ¿´´Ù°í ¹ÏÁö ¾ÊÀ¸³ª, "Áö¿ª À§¿øÈ¸µéÀÌ I-O¸¦ ½ÅûÇÏ´Â ´õ ¸¹Àº »ç¶÷µéÀ» ºÐ·ùÇϵµ·Ï ¿µÇâÀ» ÁÖ¾úÀ»" °¡´É¼ºÀÌ ÀÖ´Ù°í ¸»Çϰí ÀÖ´Ù."

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The Average C.O. 

º¸ÅëÀÇ CO 

A description of the "average" Vietnam-era C.O. is not easy to come by. Perhaps the primary reason for this oversight is a lack of information. The Selective Service has destroyed its C.O. records due to insufficient storage space.28 The only other organizations that collected data on C.O.s were draft counseling organizations (like the NISBCO and the CCCO), and individual denominations. Scholars have yet to do a comprehensive study of these resources, with the exception of Ronald Parks' dissertation on United Methodist C.O.s. Parks' research gives us a general picture of a mainstream religious C.O. This picture will probably not apply to either peace church or secular C.O.s, but it is an important source when considering the mainstream C.O. Besides source problems, any attempt to define the average C.O. runs up against the problem of individuality. Conscientious objection is by nature an individual stance. Since 1940, a C.O. has not had to have any specific religious affiliation to gain the classification. The draft board decided cases based on the individual's belief and the individual's sincerity. Parks notes that every registrant in his survey came to his C.O. convictions through a different route, except for a pair of identical twins.29 Nearly 80 percent of 491 United Methodist C.O. registrants were students, with almost 60 percent working towards an undergraduate degree. Fifteen percent were high school students. The remaining 20 percent of registrants were spread between a wide variety of occupations.30 Thirty- five percent of the sample belonged to at least one anti-war or peace-oriented organization.31 Almost 70 percent of those belonged to one of the oldest groups, the Fellowship of Reconciliation.32 When asked about the sources for their C.O. beliefs, very few of the registrants noted either particular events in the Vietnam war (such as the Tet Offensive or the My Lai massacre) or the artistic protests of the decade.33 What was influential was the registrants' formative religious experiences. A number of registrants noted that their childhood Sunday School (or church) experience helped form their pacifist convictions.34 College also afforded many C.O.s the opportunity to confront issues of war and peace both inside and outside of the classroom.35 Parks' data contained no information on race or economic status.36 However, because the majority of C.O.s were college students, we can assume that the C.O.s came from predominately middle and upper class backgrounds. In other words, C.O.s were largely those men who could afford to be educated. 

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"º¸ÅëÀÇ" º£Æ®³²Àü ½Ã±âÀÇ CO¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¼³¸íÀº ±¸ÇϱⰡ ½±Áö ¾Ê´Ù. ¾Æ¸¶µµ ÀÌ·± ºÎÁ·ÀÇ ÁÖµÈ ÀÌÀ¯´Â Á¤º¸ÀÇ ºÎÁ·ÀÏ °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ´ëüº¹¹«´Â ÀÚüÀÇ CO ±â·ÏµéÀ» ÃæºÐÇÏÁö ¾ÊÀº ÀúÀå °ø°£ ¶§¹®¿¡ ÆÄ±«ÇØ ¹ö·È´Ù. CO¿¡ °üÇÑ ÀÚ·áµéÀ» ¼öÁýÇÑ À¯ÀÏÇÑ ´Ù¸¥ ±â°üµéÀº (NISBCO ¹× CCCO¿Í °°Àº)¡º´ »ó´ã ´Üüµé°ú °³º°ÀûÀÎ ±³ÆÄµéÀ̾ú´Ù. ÇÐÀÚµéÀº ¾ÆÁ÷ À̵é ÀÚ·áµé¿¡ ´ëÇØ Æ÷°ýÀûÀÎ ¿¬±¸¸¦ ÇàÇØ¾ß¸¸ Çϳª  Ronald ParksÀÇ °¨¸®±³ CO¿¡ °üÇÑ ³í¹®¸¸Àº ¿¹¿ÜÀÌ´Ù. ParksÀÇ ¿¬±¸´Â ¿ì¸®¿¡°Ô ÁÖ·ù Á¾±³ÀÇ CO¿¡ °üÇÑ ÀϹÝÀûÀÎ ¾ç»óÀ» Á¦½ÃÇÑ´Ù. ÀÌ·± ¾ç»óÀº ÆòÈ­ ±³È¸³ª ¼¼¼ÓÀÇ COµé¿¡°Ô´Â ¾Æ¸¶µµ Àû¿ëµÇÁö´Â ¾Ê°ÚÁö¸¸, ÁÖ·ùÀÇ CO¸¦ °íÂûÇÒ ¶§¿¡ Áß¿äÇÑ Ãâó°¡ µÈ´Ù. ÃâóÀÇ ¹®Á¦µé »Ó¸¸ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó, ÀϹÝÀû CO¸¦ Á¤ÀÇÇÏ·Á´Â ¾î¶² ½Ãµµµµ °³ÀÎÀû ¹®Á¦¸¦ ¹þ¾î³ª´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ´Â º»ÁúÀûÀ¸·Î °³ÀÎÀû ÀÚ¼¼ÀÌ´Ù. 1940³â ÀÌÈÄ, Àϰ³ CO´Â ºÐ·ù¸¦ ¾ò¾î³»±â À§ÇÏ¿© ¾î¶² ±¸Ã¼Àû Á¾±³ÀûÀÎ ¿¬´ë¸¦ °¡Á®¾ß ÇÒ Àǹ«°¡ ¾ø¾ú´Ù. ¡º´ À§¿øÈ¸´Â »ç¾ÈµéÀ» °³ÀÎÀÇ ½Å³ä ¹× °³ÀÎÀÇ Áø½Ç¼ºÀ» ±âÁØÀ¸·Î °áÁ¤ÇÏ¿´´Ù. Parks´Â Á¦°¢±â µî·ÏÀÚµéÀÌ ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ °üÃøÀ¸·Î »óÀÌÇÑ °æ·Î¸¦ ÅëÇÏ¿©, ¶È°°Àº ½ÖµÕÀÌ ÇÑ ½ÖÀÇ °æ¿ì¸¦ Á¦¿ÜÇϰí´Â,  ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ CO ½Å³äµé¿¡ µµ´ÞÇÏ°Ô µÇ¾úÀ½À» ¸»Çϰí ÀÖ´Ù. 491¸íÀÇ ¿¬ÇÕ °¨¸®±³ CO µî·ÏÀÚµé Áß¿¡¼­ °ÅÀÇ 80%´Â ÇлýµéÀ̾úÀ¸¸ç, À̵é Áß 60%´Â ÇкΠÀçÇлý Á¤µµ¿¡ À̸£·¶´Ù. 15%´Â °íµîÇб³ ÇлýµéÀ̾ú´Ù. µî·ÏÀÚµéÀÇ ³ª¸ÓÁö 20%´Â ´Ù¾çÇÑ Á÷¾÷µé »çÀÌ¿¡ ºÐÆ÷ÇØ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. °ßº»ÀÇ 35%´Â Àû¾îµµ ÇѰ¡ÁöÀÇ ¹ÝÀü ¶Ç´Â ÆòÈ­ ÁöÇâÀûÀÎ ´Üü¿¡ ¼Ò¼ÓÇØ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ±×µé Áß °ÅÀÇ 70%´Â [È­ÇØÀÇ ¸ðÀÓ]°ú °°Àº °¡Àå ¿À·¡µÈ ´Üüµé ÁßÀÇ Çϳª¿¡ ¼Ò¼ÓµÇ¾î ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ±×µéÀÇ CO ½Å³ä¿¡ ±â¿øµé¿¡ ´ëÇØ Áú¹®ÇÏ¿´À» ¶§, µî·ÏÀÚµé Áß °ÅÀÇ ¾Æ¹«µµ º£Æ®³² ÀüÀïÀÇ Æ¯Á¤ÇÑ (¿¹¸¦ µé¸é <1968³â º£Æ®ÄáÀÇ ±¸Á¤°ø¼¼> ¶Ç´Â <¸¶À̶óÀÌ ´ëÇлì>°ú °°Àº) »ç°ÇµéÀ» ¾ð±ÞÇÏÁö ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. ¿µÇâÀ» ¹ÌÄ£ °ÍÀº µî·ÏÀÚµéÀÇ ¼ºÀå±âÀÇ Á¾±³Àû °æÇèµéÀ̾ú´Ù. ¸¹Àº µî·ÏÀÚµéÀº ±×µéÀÇ À¯³â±âÀÇ ÁÖÀÏ Çб³(¶Ç´Â ±³È¸) °æÇèÀÌ ±×µéÀÇ ÆòÈ­ÁÖÀÇ ½Å³äµéÀ» Çü¼ºÇϴµ¥ µµ¿òÀ» ÁÖ¾ú´Ù°í ¸»Çß´Ù. ´ëÇÐµé ¿ª½Ã ¸¹Àº COµéÀÌ ÇбÞÀÇ ¾ÈÆÆ¿¡¼­ ÀüÀï°ú ÆòÈ­¿¡ °üÇÑ ¹®Á¦µéÀ» Á÷¸éÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´Â ±âȸ¸¦ Á¦°øÇÏ¿´´Ù. ParksÀÇ ÀÚ·á´Â ÀÎÁ¾À̳ª °æÁ¦Àû ÁöÀ§¿¡ °üÇÑ ¾Æ¹«·± Á¤º¸µµ Æ÷ÇÔÇÏÁö ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. ±×·¯³ª, ´ë´Ù¼ö COµéÀÌ ´ëÇлýµéÀ̾úÀ¸¹Ç·Î, ¿ì¸®´Â COµéÀÌ ¾ÐµµÀûÀ¸·Î Áß»óÀ§ÃþÀ» ¹è°æÀ¸·Î ³ª¿Ô´Ù´Â °ÍÀ» ÁüÀÛÇÒ ¼ö ÀÕ´Ù. ´Ù½Ã ¸»ÇÏÀÚ¸é, COµéÀº ´ëüÀûÀ¸·Î ±³À°À» ¹ÞÀ» ±âȸ°¡ ÀÖ´Â »ç¶÷µéÀ̾ú´Ù´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù.

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Obtaining a C.O. Classification 

CO ºÐ·ùÀÇ È¹µæ

The first step in obtaining a C.O. classification was to notify the draft board either at the time of registration or at any time before the registrant received his induction notice. The registrant then filled out Selective Service Form 150, explaining his conscientious objection beliefs. Once the registrant completed the form it was held by the draft board until the individual came up in the sequence of induction. C.O.s, whether I-O or I-A-O, were treated in the exact same sequential manner as I-As.37 The S.S.S. determined a sequence of deferments available to the draftee, and I-O and I-A-O were the last designations on the list.38 If a potential C.O. could be deferred for any other reason, he was. Only if no other deferment could be found was a registrant's C.O. application acted on.39 Because of this policy, there were quite likely many thousands of men who held C.O. beliefs who were given other deferments each year. The NISBCO estimated that from June 1970 to June 1971 about 60 percent of registrants requesting a C.O. classification received it. Most who were turned down appealed the local board's decision.40 Because detailed statistics on conscientious objection were not collected by the S.S.S. prior to June 1970, it is impossible to know if this trend held true throughout the entire war period. The appeal approval rate was likely somewhat lower before the Welsh case came down in June 1970. After Welsh, the more liberal guidelines probably led to a higher approval rate.41 If a registrant was turned down, he could appeal the decision through a series of local and national appeal boards. In the event that none of these avenues proved successful, the registrant could then take his case into the legal system, as Seeger, Welsh, and Gillette did. A C.O. applicant might face his draft board either at a pre-classification personal hearing, or at a latter appeal. In such a situation, the draft boards often asked the registrant to explain his religious beliefs. He was questioned about how they were formed, and why they would not allow him to kill or participate in war. 

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COºÐ·ù¸¦ ¾ò´Â ù°ÉÀ½Àº µî·Ï½Ã³ª µî·ÏÀÚ°¡ ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ¸ðº´ ÅëÁö¸¦ ¹Þ±â Àü ¾î´À ¶§³ª ¡º´ À§¿øÈ¸¿¡ °íÁöÇÏ´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù. µî·ÏÀÚ´Â ±×·¯¸é ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ ½Å³äµéÀ» ¼³¸íÇÏ´Â ´ëüº¹¹« ¼­½Ä 150À» ÀÛ¼ºÇÏ°Ô µÈ´Ù. ÀÏ´Ü µî·ÏÀÚ°¡ ¼­½ÄÀ» ¿Ï¼ºÇÏ¸é ±×°ÍÀº °³ÀÎÀÌ ¸ðº´ÀÇ ¼ø¼­¿¡ ´Ù´Ùµé ¶§±îÁö ¡º´ À§¿øÈ¸°¡ º¸°üÇϰí Àִ´Ù. COµéÀº, I-OÀ̵ç I-A-OÀ̵ç , I-Aµé°ú Á¤È®È÷ ¶È°°Àº ¼øÂ÷ÀûÀÎ ¹æ¹ýÀ¸·Î 󸮵ȴÙ. SSS´Â ÇÇ¡º´Àڵ鿡°Ô °¡´ÉÇÑ À¯¿¹µéÀÇ ¼ø¼­¸¦ °áÁ¤Çϰí, I-O ¹× I-A-O´Â ¸ñ·Ï»ó¿¡¼­ °¡Àå ÃÖÈÄ¿¡ ÁöÁ¤µÇ´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ¸¸ÀÏ ÀáÀçÀû CO°¡ ´Ù¸¥ ¾î¶² ÀÌÀ¯·Î À¯¿¹µÉ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù¸é, ±×·¸°Ô µÈ´Ù. ¿ÀÁ÷ ´Ù¸¥ À¯¿¹°¡ ¼º¸³µÉ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù¸é µî·ÏÀÚÀÇ CO ½ÅûÀÌ È°¼ºÈ­µÈ´Ù. ÀÌ·± Á¤Ã¥ ¶§¹®¿¡, ¸Å³â ´Ù¸¥ À¯¿¹µéÀ» ¹Þ´Â CO½Å³äÀ» º¸À¯ÇÑ ÀÚ°¡ ¼öõ ¸í Á¸ÀçÇÒ °¡´É¼ºÀÌ »ó´çÈ÷ ³ô´Ù. NISBCO´Â 1970 ³â 6 ¿ùºÎÅÍ 1971 ³â 6 ¿ù±îÁö CO ºÐ·ù¸¦ ¿äûÇÏ´Â µî·ÏÀÚµéÀÇ ´ë·« 60%°¡ ÀÌ ºÐ·ù¸¦ ¹Þ¾Ò´Ù°í Æò°¡ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±â°¢µÈ ´ëºÎºÐÀÇ »ç¶÷µéÀº Áö¿ª À§¿øÈ¸ÀÇ °áÁ¤¿¡ Ç×¼ÒÇÏ¿´´Ù. 1970 ³â ÀÌÀü¿¡´Â ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ »ó¼¼ÇÑ Åë°è°¡ SSS¿¡ ÀÇÇØ¼­ ÃàÀûµÇÁö ¾Ê¾ÒÀ¸¹Ç·Î, ÀÌ·± °æÇâÀÌ Àüü ÀüÀï ±â°£ ³»³» Àû¿ëµÇ¾ú´ÂÁö ¾Æ´Â °ÍÀº ºÒ°¡´ÉÇÏ´Ù. Ç×¼Ò ÀÎÁ¤·üÀº 1970³â 6¿ù Welsh ÆÇ°áÀÌ ³»·ÁÁö±â ÀÌÀü¿£ ¾à°£ ³·¾ÒÀ» °ÍÀÌ´Ù. Welsh ÆÇ°á ÀÌÈÄ¿¡, Á»´õ ÀÚÀ¯·Î¿î ÁöħµéÀÌ ¾Æ¸¶µµ ´õ ³ôÀº ½ÂÀηüÀ» ³º°Ô ÇÏ¿´À» °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ¸¸ÀÏ ¾î¶² µî·ÏÀÚ°¡ ±â°¢µÇ¾ú´Ù¸é, ±×´Â ±× °áÁ¤¿¡ ´ëÇØ ÀÏ·ÃÀÇ Áö¿ª ¹× ±¹°¡ Ç×¼Ò À§¿øÈ¸¸¦ ÅëÇÏ¿© Ç×¼ÒÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ÀÌµé °èÅëµé Áß¿¡¼­ ¾î´À °Íµµ ¼º°øÀûÀÌÁö ¸øÇÑ °æ¿ì¿¡, µî·ÏÀÚ´Â ÀÌ »ç¾ÈÀ», Seeger, Welsh ¹× Gillette°¡ ±×·¨´ø °Íó·³, ¹ý·üÀû Á¦µµ·Î °¡Á®°¥ ¼ö ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. CO ½ÅûÀÚ´Â »çÀü ºÐ·ù °³ÀΠû¹®È¸¿¡ ¶Ç´Â ÈÄÀÚÀÇ Ç×¼Ò¿¡¼­ ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ Â¡º´ À§¿øÈ¸¿Í ´ë¸éÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ±×·¯ÇÑ »óȲ¿¡¼­, ¡º´ À§¿øÈ¸µéÀº °¡²û µî·ÏÀÚ¿¡°Ô ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ Á¾±³Àû ½Å³äµéÀ» ¼³¸íÇÒ °ÍÀ» ¿ä±¸ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×´Â ½Å³äµéÀÌ ¾î¶»°Ô Çü¼ºµÇ¾ú´ÂÁö, ±×¸®°í ±×°ÍµéÀÌ ¿Ö ±×·Î ÇÏ¿©±Ý ÀüÀï¿¡¼­ »ìÀÎÇϰųª Âü¿©ÇÔÀ» Çã¶ôÇÏÁö ¾Ê´ÂÁö  Áú¹®À» ¹Þ´Â´Ù. 

In-service Objectors 

Çö¿ªÀÎ °ÅºÎÀÚµé

The least numerous form of conscientious objection was "in-service" objection. The Department of Defense had provided for members of the armed forces who formed C.O. beliefs during their period of service to request either a non-combatant transfer or a honorable discharge.42 To keep the in-service system in line with the draft, the military used Selective Service regulations regarding conscientious objection and even consulted with the S.S.S. on such C.O. cases.43 In 1966 the NSBRO reported that in-service C.O.s were being discharged under pre-war levels.44 As NISBCO figures from 1966 to 1970 show, in-service C.O.s were much more likely to be granted a transfer to a non-combatant position than to receive a C.O. discharge. In 1966, the Army approved only 4 percent of discharge requests, while granting 85 percent of C.O. transfer requests. In 1970, the Army approved 32 percent of discharge requests and 76 percent of transfer requests. The Navy and the Marine Corps also had a higher approval rate as the war went on. The Navy moved from a total approval rate of 38 percent in 1966 to 63 percent in 1970; the Marines went from 25 percent to 67 percent over the same period. Only the Air Force reduced its approval rating throughout the Vietnam War, moving from 90 percent in 1966 to 42 percent in 1970. In terms of numbers, even at the height of disenchantment with the war in 1970, only 1,945 soldiers in the Army requested C.O. status. That year the Navy handled 577 applications, the Marines 135, and the Air Force 286 requests.45 

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¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ Áß¿¡¼­ °¡Àå ÀûÀº ÇüÅ´ "Çö¿ª" °ÅºÎÀÌ´Ù. ±¹¹æºÎ´Â ÀÚ½ÅÀÌ º¹¹«ÁßÀÎ ±â°£ µ¿¾È CO ½Å³äÀ» Çü¼ºÇÑ ±º´ëÀÇ ±¸¼º¿øµé¿¡°Ô ºñ-ÀüÅõ¿øÀ¸·ÎÀÇ Àüº¸ ¶Ç´Â ¸í¿¹ Á¦´ë¸¦ ¿äûÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖµµ·Ï ±ÔÁ¤ÇÏ¿´´Ù. Çö¿ª Á¦µµ¸¦ ¡º´°ú º¸Á¶¸¦ ¸ÂÃß±â À§ÇÏ¿©, ±º´ë´Â ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¿¡ °üÇÑ ´ëüº¹¹« ±ÔÁ¤À» »ç¿ëÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, ±×·¯ÇÑ CO »ç¾Èµé¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿© SSS¿Í »ó´ãÇÏ¿´´Ù. 1966 ³â NSBRO´Â Çö¿ª COµéÀÌ ÀüÀï ÀÌÀü ´Ü°èµé¿¡¼­ Á¦´ëµÇ°í ÀÖ´Ù°í º¸°íÇß´Ù. 1966 ³âºÎÅÍ 1970 ³â±îÁö NISBCOÀÇ ¼öÄ¡µéÀÌ º¸¿©ÁÖµíÀÌ, Çö¿ª COµéÀº CO Á¦´ë¸¦ ¹Þ±â º¸´Ù´Â ºñ-ÀüÅõ¿øÀ¸·Î Àüº¸¸¦ ½ÂÀιÞÀ» °¡´É¼ºÀÌ ÈξÀ ³ô¾Ò´Ù. 1966 ³â, À°±ºÀº ¿ÀÁ÷ 4%ÀÇ Á¦´ë ¿ä±¸µéÀ» ½ÂÀÎÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, ¹Ý¸é¿¡ 85%ÀÇ CO Àüº¸ ¿äûÀ» ½ÂÀÎÇÏ¿´´Ù. 1970 ³â, À°±ºÀº 32%ÀÇ Á¦´ë ¿ä±¸¿Í 76%ÀÇ Àüº¸ ¿ä±¸¸¦ ½ÂÀÎÇÏ¿´´Ù. ÇØ±º°ú ÇØº´´ë ¿ª½Ã ÀüÀïÀÌ ÁøÇàµÊ¿¡ µû¶ó¼­ ´õ ³ôÀº ½ÂÀηüÀ» º¸¿´´Ù. ÇØ±ºÀº 1966 ³âÀÇ 38%¿¡¼­ 1970 ³âÀÇ 63%·Î ÀüüÀû ½ÂÀηüÀÌ À̵¿µÇ¾úÀ¸¸ç; ÇØº´´ë´Â µ¿ÀÏÇÑ ±â°£¿¡ 25%¿¡¼­ 67%·Î À̵¿Çß´Ù. ¿ÀÁ÷ °ø±º ¸¸ÀÌ º£Æ®³² ÀüÀïÀ» ÅëÆ²¾î¼­ 1966 ³â 90%¿¡¼­ 1970 ³â¿¡ 42%·Î ÀÚüÀÇ ½ÂÀηüÀ» °¨¼Ò½ÃÄ×´Ù. ¼öÄ¡·Î ¸»ÇÏÀÚ¸é, ½ÉÁö¾î 1970 ³â ÀüÀï¿¡ ´ëÇÑ È¯¸êÀÌ ÀýÁ¤ÀÌ´ø ¶§¿¡µµ, ¿ÀÁ÷ 1,945 ¸íÀÇ À°±ºÀÇ º´»çµéÀÌ CO µî±ÞÀ» ¿ä±¸Çß´Ù. ±× ÇØ¿¡ ÇØ±ºÀº 577 ¸íÀÇ ½ÅûµéÀ», ÇØº´´ë´Â 135 ¸í, ±×¸®°í °ø±ºÀº 286 ¸íÀÇ ¿ä±¸µéÀ» ó¸®Çß´Ù.

I-A-Os 

I-A-O µî±Þµé 

Approximately half as many conscientious objectors entered non-combatant military service as did civilian alternate service.46 If their non-combatant application was approved, the registrant was placed in the I-A-O category. An applicant requesting a I-A-O designation had about a 75 percent chance of receiving the classification. This was slightly better than the almost 60 percent chance of success the I-O registrant enjoyed.47 The reason for the disparity harks back to Leo Crespi's research on public reactions to WWII C.O.s. The public tended to approve more of C.O.s who entered the military as non-combatants than those who remained as civilians. In other words, the more willing a registrant was to serve in the military the more likely he was to receive a C.O. classification. One observer claims that this also accounted for the more favorable press reaction to I-A-O objectors.48 Furthermore, I-A-Os counted towards a draft board quota of inductions, making a I-A-O claim more "useful" to the board than a I-O claim. The Selective Service grouped the I-A-Os with the I-As, as both groups were destined for military service. Consequently, there were no figures for the number of men classified I-A-O, only for those who actually entered the military. As Table 4.4 shows, the number of I-A-O C.O.s from 1964 to 1969 did not exceed 5,000. Also, non-combatant C.O.s made up a small proportion of the total American military strength. With such low numbers, it was not difficult for either the S.S.S. or the military to accommodate these objectors. Non-combatant C.O.s mostly served as medics, and medics were nearly always sent into combat in Vietnam.49 Because medics in the field were under the same risks as every other foot soldier, yet had no way to fight back, their peers often respected their bravery.50 Some non- combatants also served as cooks, clerks, truck drivers, and any number of other military support positions.51 

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¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚ µéÀº ½Ã¹Î ´ëüº¹¹«¿¡ ºñÇØ¼­ ´ë·« Àý¹ÝÀÌ ¸¹Àº ¼ýÀÚ°¡ ºñ-ÀüÅõ¿øÀ¸·Î ÀÔ´ëÇß´Ù. ¸¸ÀÏ ±×µéÀÇ ºñ-ÀüÅõ¿ø ½ÅûÀÌ ½ÂÀεǾú´Ù¸é, µî·ÏÀÚ´Â I-A-O¹üÁÖ¿¡ ¼Ò¼ÓµÇ¾ú´Ù.  I-A-O ¹èÄ¡¸¦ ¿ä±¸ÇÏ´Â ½ÅûÀÚ´Â ÀÌ ºÐ·ù¸¦ ¹ÞÀ» °¡´É¼ºÀÌ ¾à 75%°¡ µÇ¾ú´Ù. À̰ÍÀº I-O µî·ÏÀÚ°¡ ´©¸®´Â ¼º°ø È®·üÀÎ 60%º¸´Ù ¾à°£ ³ªÀº °ÍÀ̾ú´Ù. ºÒ±ÕÇü¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÀÌÀ¯´Â Á¦2Â÷ ¼¼°è´ëÀü COµé¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ´ëÁßÀÇ ¹ÝÀÀµé¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Leo CrespiÀÇ ¿¬±¸·Î °Å½½·¯ ¿Ã¶ó°£´Ù. ´ëÁßµéÀº ±º´ë¿¡ ºñ-ÀüÅõ¿øÀ¸·Î ÀÔ´ëÇÏ´Â COµéÀ» ¹Î°£ÀÎÀ¸·Î ³²¾ÆÀÖ´Â »ç¶÷µéº¸´Ù ´õ ½ÂÀÎÇÏ´Â °æÇâÀ̾ú´Ù. ´Ù½Ã ¸»ÇÏÀÚ¸é, µî·ÏÀÚ°¡ ±º´ë¿¡ º¹¹«ÇÒ Àǻ簡 ¸¹À¸¸é ¸¹À» ¼ö·Ï ±×°¡ CO ºÐ·ù¸¦ ¹ÞÀ» °¡´É¼ºÀÌ ´õ ³ô¾ÆÁø´Ù´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ÇÑ °üÃøÀÚ´Â À̰ÍÀº ¶ÇÇÑ I-A-O¿¡ ´ëÇØ Á»´õ È£ÀÇÀûÀÎ ¾ð·ÐÀÇ ¹ÝÀÀÀ» ¼³¸íÇÏ´Â °ÍÀ̶ó°í ÁÖÀåÇÑ´Ù. °Ô´Ù°¡, I-A-O´Â ¡º´ À§¿øÈ¸ÀÇ ¸ðº´ ¼öÄ¡¿¡ À¯¸®ÇÏ°Ô Àû¿ëµÇ¸ç, ¡º´ À§¿øÈ¸¿¡°Ô´Â I-O ÁÖÀ庸´Ù´Â I-A-O ÁÖÀåÀÌ ´õ¿í "À¯ÀÍÇÑ" °ÍÀÌ µÇ¾ú´Ù. ´ëüº¹¹«´Â I-A-OµéÀ» I-A¿Í ÇÔ²² ±×·ìÀ» ¸¸µé¾úÀ¸¸ç, ÀÌ´Â ¾ç´ë ±×·ìµéÀÌ °øÈ÷ ±ºº¹¹«¸¦ ÁöÇâÇÏ´Â °ÍÀ̱⠶§¹®À̾ú´Ù. ±× °á°ú, I-A-O·Î ºÐ·ùµÈ »ç¶÷µéÀÇ ¼ýÀÚ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¾Æ¹«·± ¼öÄ¡°¡ ¾ø¾úÀ¸¸ç, ¿ÀÁ÷ ½ÇÁ¦·Î ±º´ë¿¡ µé¾î°£ »ç¶÷µé¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¼öÄ¡¸¸ ÀÖ¾úÀ» »ÓÀÌ´Ù. Ç¥ 4.4°¡ º¸¿©ÁÖµíÀÌ, 1964 ³âºÎÅÍ 1969 ³â±îÁöÀÇ I-A-Oµî±ÞÀÇ COµéÀÇ ¼ýÀÚ´Â 5,000 ¸íÀ» ÃʰúÇÏÁö ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. ¶ÇÇÑ, ºñ-ÀüÅõ¿ø COµéÀº Àüü ¹Ì±¹ ±º»ç·Â¿¡¼­ ÀÛÀº ±Ô¸ð¸¦ ±¸¼ºÇÏ¿´´Ù. ÀÌ¿Í °°ÀÌ ³·Àº ¼ýÀÚµé·Î¼­, SSS³ª ±º´ë°¡ ÀÌµé °ÅºÎÀÚ µéÀ» ¼ö¿ëÇÏ´Â °ÍÀº ¾î·ÆÁö ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. ºñ-ÀüÅõ¿ø COµéÀº ´ëºÎºÐ À§»ýº´À¸·Î º¹¹«ÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, À§»ýº´µéÀº °ÅÀÇ ¾ðÁ¦³ª º£Æ®³²¿¡¼­ÀÇ ÀüÅõ¿¡ ÆÄº´µÇ¾ú´Ù. Àü¼±¿¡¼­ÀÇ À§»ýº´µéÀº ´Ù¸¥ ¸ðµç º¸º´µé°ú ¶È°°Àº À§Çè¿¡ Ã³ÇØ ÀÖÀ¸¸é¼­µµ ´ëÇ×ÇØ ½Î¿ï ¼ö ¾ø¾úÀ¸¹Ç·Î, ±×µéÀÇ µ¿·áµéÀº Á¾Á¾ ±×µéÀÇ ¿ë°¨ÇÔÀ» Á¸°æÇß´Ù. ÀϺΠºñ-ÀüÅõ¿øµéÀº ¶ÇÇÑ Ãë»çº´, ¼­±â, Æ®·° ¿îÀü¼ö ¹× ±âŸ ¸¹Àº ±º»ç Áö¿ø ÁöÀ§·Î º¹¹«Çß´Ù. 

Alternative Service 

´ëü º¹¹«

Since 1951, conscientious objectors performed alternate service instead of the WWI-style non-combatant service or the WWII-era CPS camps. During Vietnam, however, the system was stretched to its limit by the huge influx of conscientious objectors. Especially after the Seeger and  Welsh decisions, many boards had trouble placing C.O.s in alternate work.52 The numbers of C.O.s simply outstripped the available work positions. When Congress renewed the draft in 1971 it changed the alternative service provision, placing the director of the S.S.S. in charge of supervising alternative service rather than the local boards. However, in these final two years of the program, former director Curtis Tarr wrote that "we made no real progress in the administration of alternate service."53 Conscientious objectors, classified I-W once in alternate service, performed a wide variety of jobs. The S.S.S. found jobs for about one-third of I-Ws. Another third found their own employment, and the remainder found jobs through churches, draft counselors, or other means.54 One C.O. who worked at a YMCA camp described his  experience:  The pay was small--I think less than $300 per month--but room and board came with it, and I thought there could be worse places to do alternate service work, and I was interested in doing some writing (the mountains seemed like a good place) and so I accepted. I became pretty good friends with the other two C.O.s. One was a tall, WASPy sort from California...and he completed his term a few months after I arrived, the other was blue collar-Boston, with that great New England accent. The jobs we had were mainly in the maintenance area -- garbage trucks, moving stuff around, clean up, etc. I arrived in mid-February. My parents took me out there and they were depressed when they left -- it was bleak and lonely, and the camp was only used on weekends, and even then not too often. A few months into my stay I had a run-in with the head of the camp...[who] had sort of a tough, mean demeanor. Still, how mean could he be, it was the YMCA-- right? I went to his office because I had hopes of becoming a "counselor" or of at least doing something besides driving a garbage truck. Remember, I was expecting to stay there for two years; I'd been there about two months. In this meeting, [he] told me he was my "warden" and I would do what he told me to do. Uncharacteristically for me, I slammed my fist down on his desk and informed him that I was not a prisoner, I was here by my choice, that I was within my rights as a citizen, and that furthermore I was college educated and could actually be of some help to the camp. My outburst must have surprised him, since shortly after I was "reassigned" as the head of youth programming for the whole camp. I began planning out activities for kids, and set up a whole program for the rest of the year, and felt that at least I would be using my brain and natural abilities in running this program.55¡¡ 1951³â ÀÌÈÄ, ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚ µéÀº Á¦1Â÷ ¼¼°è´ëÀü ½ºÅ¸ÀÏÀÇ ºñ-ÀüÅõ¿ø º¹¹« ¶Ç´Â Á¦2Â÷ ¼¼°è´ëÀü ½Ã±âÀÇ cps ¼ö¿ë¼Òµé ´ë½Å¿¡ ´ëü º¹¹«¸¦ ¼öÇàÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×·¯³ª º£Æ®³²Àü µ¿¾ÈÀº, ÀÌ Á¦µµ°¡ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚ µéÀÇ ¾öû³­ À¯ÀÔÀ¸·Î ±× ÇѰ迡 µµ´ÞÇÏ¿´´Ù. Ưº°È÷ Seeger ¹× Welsh °áÁ¤µé ÈÄ¿¡, ¸¹Àº À§¿øÈ¸µéÀº COµéÀ» ´ëü ¾÷¹«¿¡ ¹èÄ¡½ÃÅ´¿¡ ¾î·Á¿òÀ» °Þ¾ú´Ù. COµéÀÇ ¼ýÀÚµéÀº ´Ü¼øÈ÷ »ç¿ë °¡´ÉÇÑ ¾÷¹« À§Ä¡µéÀ» ¾ÕÁú·¯ ¹ö¸° °ÍÀ̾ú´Ù. ÀÇȸ°¡ 1971 ³â ¡º´À» Àç°³ÇÏ¿´À» ¶§, ´ëüº¹¹« Á¶Ç×À» °³Á¤ÇÏ¿©¼­, SSS ±¹ÀåÀÌ Áö¿ª À§¿øÈ¸¸¦ Ã¥ÀÓÁö°Ô Çϱ⠺¸´Ù´Â ´ëüº¹¹«¸¦ °üÀåÇϴ åÀÓÀ» Áöµµ·Ï ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×·¯³ª, ÀÌµé ¸¶Áö¸· 2 ³â°£ÀÇ ÇÁ·Î±×·¥¿¡¼­, ÀÌÀüÀÇ ±¹ÀåÀÎ Cutris Tarr´Â "¿ì¸®´Â ´ëüº¹¹« ÇàÁ¤¿¡¼­ ¾Æ¹«·± »ç½ÇÀû Áøº¸¸¦ ÀÌ·çÁö ¸øÇß´Ù"°í ½è´Ù. ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚ µéÀº, ÇѹøÀº ´ëüº¹¹«¿¡¼­ I-W·Î ºÐ·ùµÇ¾úÀ¸¸ç, ±¤¹üÀ§ÇÏ°Ô ´Ù¾çÇÑ Á÷Á¾À» ¼öÇàÇÏ¿´´Ù. SSS´Â I-WÀÇ ´ë·« 3ºÐÀÇ 1 Á¤µµÀÇ Á÷Á¾À» ¸¶·ÃÇÏ¿´´Ù. ´Ù¸¥ 3ºÐÀÇ 1Àº ±×µé ½º½º·Î Á÷Á¾À» ±¸ÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, ³ª¸ÓÁö´Â ±³È¸µé, ¡º´ »ó´ã¿øµé, ¶Ç´Â ´Ù¸¥ ¼ö´ÜµéÀ» ÅëÇÏ¿© Á÷Á¾À» ±¸Çß´Ù. YMCA Ä·ÇÁ¿¡¼­ ±Ù¹«ÇÑ ÇÑ CO´Â ±×ÀÇ °æÇèÀ» ÀÌ¿Í °°ÀÌ ¹¦»çÇß´Ù: ºÀ±ÞÀº Àû¾ú´Ù--»ý°¢ÇϰǴë, ÇÑ ´Þ¿¡ $300 ÀÌÇÏÀÌ´Ù--±×·¯³ª ±×°÷¿¡´Â ¹æ°ú ÆÇÀÚ°¡ Á¦°øµÇ¾ú´Ù, ±×¸®°í ³ª´Â ´ëü º¹¹« ¾÷¹«¸¦ ÇàÇϱ⿡ ´õ ¿­¾ÇÇÑ °÷µéµµ ÀÖÀ¸¸®¶ó »ý°¢Çß´Ù, ±×¸®°í ³ª´Â ¹«¾ùÀΰ¡ ÁýÇÊÇÔ¿¡(»êµéÀÌ ÁÁÀº Àå¼Ò °°¾Æ º¸¿´´Ù) Èï¹Ì¸¦ °¡Áö°í ÀÖ¾ú´Ù ±×¸®°í ±×·¡¼­ ³ª´Â ¼ö¶ôÇß´Ù. ³ª´Â ´Ù¸¥ µÎ ¸íÀÇ COµé°ú ¸Å¿ì ÈǸ¢ÇÑ Ä£±¸°¡ µÇ¾ú´Ù. ÇÑ »ç¶÷Àº ۰¡ Å«, ͏®Æ÷´Ï¾Æ Ãâ½ÅÀÇ ¾Þ±Û·Î»ö½¼°è ¹éÀÎ ½Å±³µµ¿´´Ù... ±×¸®°í ±×´Â ³»°¡ µµÂøÇÑ µÚ ¸î ´Þ ÀÖ´Ù°¡ ±×ÀÇ º¹¹« ±â°£À» ¸¶ÃÆÀ¸¸ç, ´Ù¸¥ ÇÑ »ç¶÷Àº º¸½ºÅæÀÇ ³ëµ¿ÀÚ·Î, ´ºÀ×±Û·£µå Áö¹æÀÇ ¾îÅõ¸¦ »ç¿ëÇß´Ù. ¿ì¸®ÀÇ ÀÓ¹«µéÀº ÁÖ·Î ÁÖº¯ °ü¸®¿´´Ù -- ÁÖº¯ÀÇ ¹°°ÇµéÀ» Ä¡¿ì¸ç û¼ÒÇÏ´Â ¾²·¹±âÂ÷µé µîÀ̾ú´Ù. ³ª´Â 2¿ù Áß¼ø°æ µµÂøÇÏ¿´´Ù. ³ªÀÇ ºÎ¸ðµéÀÌ ±×°÷¿¡ µ¥·Á´Ù ÁÖ¾úÀ¸¸ç ±×µéÀº ¶°³¯ ¶§ ½½Ç ǥÁ¤µéÀ̾ú´Ù -- Ȳ·®ÇÏ°í ¿Ü·Î¿üÀ¸¸ç, ¿ÀÁ÷ ÁÖ¸»¿¡¸¸ »ç¿ëµÇ¾ú°í, ½ÉÁö¾î ±×·± ¶§¿¡µµ ±×¸® ÈçÇÏÁö ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. ³»°¡ üÀçÇÑ ÈÄ ¸î °³¿ùÀÌ µÇ¾úÀ» ¶§ Ä·ÇÁÀÇ ÁöµµÀÚ¿Í ½Î¿ü´Ù...±×´Â ¾à°£ °ÅÄ¥°í ºñ¿­ÇÑ Åµµ¸¦ Áö³æ´Ù. ¿©ÀüÈ÷, ±×°¡ ¾ó¸¶³ª ºñ¿­ÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖÀ»±î, ±×°ÍÀº YMCA¿´´Ù--±×·¸Áö ¾ÊÀº°¡? ³ª´Â ±×ÀÇ »ç¹«½Ç¿¡ µé¾î°¬´Ù ¿Ö³ÄÇÏ¸é ¾²·¹±âÂ÷¸¦ ¸ð´Â ¿Ü¿¡ Àû¾îµµ ¹«¾ùÀΰ¡¸¦ ÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´Â "»ó´ã¿ø"ÀÌ µÇ°íÀÚ ÇÏ´Â Èñ¸ÁÀ» °¡Á³±â ¶§¹®À̾ú´Ù. »ý°¢Çغ¸´Ï, ³ª´Â ±×°÷¿¡¼­ 2 ³â°£À» ¸Ó¹°µµ·Ï µÇ¾î ÀÖ¾ú´Ù; ³ª´Â ±×°÷¿¡ 2 °³¿ùÀ» ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ÀÌ ÀÚ¸®¿¡¼­, ±×´Â ³»°Ô ÀÚ½ÅÀÌ ³ªÀÇ "°¨½ÃÀÚ"ÀÌ¸ç ³ª´Â ±×°¡ ³»°Ô ¸í·ÉÇÏ´Â °ÍÀ» ÇØ¾ß ÇÑ´Ù°í ¸»Çß´Ù. ³ª Àڽſ¡°Ô ¾î¿ï¸®Áö ¾Ê°Ô, ³ª´Â ±×ÀÇ Ã¥»óÀ» ÁÖ¸ÔÀ¸·Î ³»·ÁÃÆÀ¸¸ç ³ª´Â ±×¿¡°Ô ¸»Çß´Ù, ³ª´Â Á˼ö°¡ ¾Æ´Ï´Ù, ³ª´Â ³ªÀÇ ¼±ÅÃÀ¸·Î ¿©±â¿¡ ÀÖ´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù, ³ª´Â ½Ã¹ÎÀ¸·Î¼­ ³ªÀÇ ±Ç¸®°¡ ÀÖ´Ù, ±×¸®°í ´õ ³ª¾Æ°¡¼­ ³ª´Â ´ëÇб³¸¦ Á¹¾÷ÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, ±×¸®°í »ç½Ç Ä·ÇÁ¿¡ ¾î´À Á¤µµ µµ¿òÀÌ µÉ ¼ö ÀÖÀ» °ÍÀ̶ó°í Çß´Ù. ³ªÀÇ Æø¹ßÀÌ Æ²¸²¾øÀÌ ±×¸¦ ³î¶ó°Ô ÇßÀ» °ÍÀÌ´Ù, ¿Ö³ÄÇÏ¸é ¾ó¸¶ ¾È À־ ³ª´Â Àüü Ä·ÇÁ¿¡¼­ û³â ÇÁ·Î±×·¥ÀÇ ÁöµµÀÚ·Î "Àç¹èÄ¡µÇ¾ú±â" ¶§¹®ÀÌ´Ù. ³ª´Â ¾Æµ¿µéÀ» À§ÇÑ È°µ¿µéÀ» °èȹÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, ³²¾Æ ÀÖ´Â ³âµµÀÇ Àüü ÇÁ·Î±×·¥À» ®´Ù, ±×¸®°í Àû¾îµµ ³ª´Â ÀÌ ÇÁ·Î±×·¥À» ¿î¿µÇÔ¿¡ À־ ³ªÀÇ µÎ³ú¿Í õºÎÀû ´É·ÂµéÀ» »ç¿ëÇϰí ÀÖ´Ù´Â °ÍÀ» ´À²¼´Ù.
Members of the peace churches were much more favorable towards alternative service than other I-Ws. Seventy-five percent of peace church I-Ws were favorable towards alternative service, while only 51 percent of members of other religious groups approved of alternative service. Only 28 percent of non-church I-Ws were favorable. Even within these groups opinions varied a good deal. One member of the Church of the Brethren said that "[n]o sincere CO would accept a salaried position." A non-church I-W called the program "punishment for not serving your country in the Armed Forces." A Episcopal I-W said that alternative service was "evil in intent in that it is obviously designed to make COs suffer as much disruption to their freedom as men inducted into the army."56 In 1966 the S.S.S. noted that 39 percent of I-Ws worked for a religious organization. And of those I-Ws who worked overseas, 95 percent were affiliated with a religious denomination.57 

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ÆòÈ­ ±³È¸µéÀÇ ±¸¼º¿øµéÀº ±âŸ I-Wµé º¸´Ù ÈξÀ ´õ ´ëü º¹¹«¿¡ ´ëÇØ È£ÀÇÀûÀ̾ú´Ù. Æòȸ ±³È¸ I-WÀÇ 75%´Â ´ëü º¹¹«¿¡ È£ÀÇÀûÀ̾úÀ¸¸ç,¹Ý¸é¿¡ ´Ù¸¥ Á¾±³ Áý´ÜµéÀÇ ±¸¼º¿øÀÇ 51% ¸¸ÀÌ ´ëü º¹¹«¸¦ ½ÂÀÎÇÏ¿´´Ù. ºñ-±³È¸ I-WµéÀº ¿ÀÁ÷ 28% ¸¸ÀÌ È£ÀÇÀûÀ̾ú´Ù. ½ÉÁö¾î ÀÌµé ±×·ìµé ¾È¿¡¼­µµ ÀǰߵéÀº »ó´çÈ÷ ´Ù¾çÇÏ¿´´Ù. ÇüÁ¦´Ü ±³È¸ÀÇ ÇÑ ±¸¼º¿øÀº "¾î¶² Áø½ÇÇÑ COµµ À¯±Þ Á÷Ã¥À» ¹Þ¾ÆµéÀÌÁö ¾ÊÀ» °ÍÀÌ´Ù"¶ó°í ¸»Çß´Ù. ¾î¶² ºñ-±³È¸ I-W´Â ±× ÇÁ·Î±×·¥À» "À°±º¿¡¼­ ´ç½ÅÀÇ ³ª¶ó¸¦ À§ÇØ º¹¹«ÇÏÁö ¾ÊÀ½¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Ã³¹ú"À̶ó°í ºÒ·¶´Ù. °¨µ¶±³È¸ÀÇ ÇÑ I-W´Â ´ëü º¹¹«°¡ "±º´ë¿¡ ¡ÁýµÈ »ç¶÷µé ¸¸Å­ ±×µéÀÇ ÀÚÀ¯¿¡ ÁöÀåÀ» °Þµµ·Ï ¸í¹éÈ÷ °í¾ÈµÇ¾ú´Ù´Â Á¡¿¡¼­ Àǵµ°¡ ¾ÇÇÏ´Ù"°í ¸»Çß´Ù. 1966 ³â¿¡ SSS´Â I-WÀÇ 39%°¡ Á¾±³ ´Üü¿¡¼­ ±Ù¹«ÇÏ¿´´Ù°í ¸»Çß´Ù. ±×¸®°í ÇØ¿Ü¿¡ ±Ù¹«ÇÑ I-W Áß¿¡¼­, 95%´Â Á¾±³Àû Á¾ÆÄ¿Í ¿¬°üµÇ¾î ÀÖ¾ú´Ù.

Selective Conscientious Objection 

¼±ÅÃÀû ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ

Selective objection, although it had roots in the Christian and Jewish notions of a "just war," was often seen as political in nature. A S.C.O., by objecting to a particular war, announced that the government's policies were not only unsound, but also immoral. Supporters of selective conscientious objection often argued that a man must follow his conscience, even to the point where he is disobeying the orders of his government.58 The government could accept total pacifists as C.O.s, but it drew the line with selective conscientious objection. Many people assumed that if selective conscientious objection was enacted, every American military action would be subject to a plebiscite. It is possible that at least some of the men classified as conscientious objectors really were selective objectors. As one C.O. said, "I took the position that it was really the only war I was confronted with and so...my opinions about other wars would be more or less speculative."59 There is no way to tell how widespread this feeling was, and any evidence on the matter is anecdotal. 

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¼±ÅÃÀû °ÅºÎ´Â, ºñ·Ï ±× »Ñ¸®°¡ ±×¸®½ºµµ±³ ¹× À¯´ë±³ÀÇ "Á¤ÀÇÀÇ ÀüÀï" °³³ä¿¡ µÎ°í ÀÖÁö¸¸, ±× º»Áú¿¡ À־ Á¾Á¾ Á¤Ä¡ÀûÀ¸·Î ¿©°ÜÁ³´Ù. ÇÑ SCO´Â, ƯÁ¤ÇÑ ÀüÀï¿¡ ´ëÇØ °ÅºÎÇϸ鼭, Á¤ºÎÀÇ Á¤Ã¥µéÀÌ °ÇÀüÇÏÁö ¾ÊÀ» »Ó¸¸ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó ºÎµµ´öÇÏ´Ù°í ¼±¾ðÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¼±ÅÃÀû ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÇ ÁöÁöÀÚµéÀº ÈçÈ÷ »ç¶÷Àº ¹Ýµå½Ã ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ¾ç½ÉÀ» µû¶ó¾ß Çϸç, ½ÉÁö¾î ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ Á¤ºÎÀÇ ¸í·Éµé¿¡ ºÒº¹Á¾ÇØ¾ß ÇÑ´Ù°í ÁÖÀåÇß´Ù. Á¤ºÎ´Â ÀüüÀû ÆòÈ­ÁÖÀÇÀÚµéÀ» CO·Î ½ÂÀÎÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖÁö¸¸, ¼±ÅÃÀû ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¿¡ ´ëÇØ¼­´Â ¼±À» ±×¾î ³õ¾Ò´Ù. ¸¹Àº »ç¶÷µéÀº, ¸¸ÀÏ ¼±ÅÃÀû ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ°¡ ½ÃÇàµÈ´Ù¸é, °¢°¢ÀÇ ¹Ì±¹ÀÇ ±º»ç ÇൿÀº ±¹¹ÎÅõÇ¥¿¡ ºÙ¿©Á®¾ß ÇÑ´Ù°í ÁÖÀåÇß´Ù. Àû¾îµµ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚ·Î ºÐ·ùµÈ ÀϺΠ»ç¶÷µéÀÌ »ç½Ç»ó ¼±ÅÃÀû °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀÏ °¡´É¼ºÀÌ ÀÖ´Ù. ¾î¶² CO°¡ ´ÙÀ½°ú °°ÀÌ ¸»Çß´Ù, "³»°¡ ´ëÄ¡Çϰí ÀÖ´Â °ÍÀº »ç½Ç ´Ü ÇϳªÀÇ ÀüÀïÀ̶ó´Â ÀÔÀåÀ» Áö´Ï°í ÀÖ´Ù ±×¸®°í ±×·¯¹Ç·Î...´Ù¸¥ ÀüÀïµé¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ³ªÀÇ ÀǰßÀº ´Ù¼Ò°£ »çº¯ÀûÀÌ´Ù." ÀÌ·¯ÇÑ ÀǽÄÀÌ ¾ó¸¶³ª ³Î¸® À¯Æ÷µÇ¾î ÀÖ´ÂÁö ¸»ÇÒ ¼ö´Â ¾ø´Ù, ±×¸®°í ÀÌ ¹®Á¦¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¾î¶² Áõ°Åµµ ¼ûÀº À̾߱âÀÏ »ÓÀÌ´Ù.

Conclusion 

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As the Seeger and Welsh decisions took effect, the number of C.O.s skyrocketed. Most C.O.s performed civilian alternate service, although some did choose non-combatant military service. Only a very small number of C.O.s were discharged by the military as a result of their objections. As the Vietnam War progressed, conscientious objection became an important issue, especially in the churches.

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Seeger ¹× Welsh ÆÇ·Ê°¡ È¿·ÂÀ» Áö´Ï¸é¼­, COµéÀÇ ¼ýÀÚ´Â Ä¡¼Ú¾Ò´Ù. ´ëºÎºÐÀÇ COµéÀº ¹Î°£ÀÇ ´ëü º¹¹«¸¦ ¼öÇàÇÏ¿´À¸³ª, ÀϺδ ºñ-ÀüÅõ¿ø º´¿ªÀ» ¼±ÅÃÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¿ÀÁ÷ ¸Å¿ì ÀûÀº ¼ýÀÚÀÇ COµéÀÌ ±×µéÀÇ °ÅºÎÀÇ °á°ú·Î¼­ ±º´ë¿¡¼­ Á¦´ëµÇ¾ú´Ù. º£Æ®³² ÀüÀïÀÌ ÁøÇàµÇ¸é¼­, ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ´Â Áß¿äÇÑ ¹®Á¦°¡ µÇ¾úÀ¸¸ç, Ưº°È÷ ±³È¸µé¿¡¼­ ±×·¯Çß´Ù.

Footnotes


1. During the 1950s the S.S.S. had become, in Hershey's words, a "channeler," deferring men into selected fields, like science and farming.

2. On the eve of the Vietnam War the S.S.S. deferred 350,000 students, 1,300,000 fathers, 60,000 industrial workers, and 20,000 farmers.

3. Increased fighting in Southeast Asia ended some of these large-scale 1Flynn, The Draft, 168. 2Flynn, "Hershey and the Conscientious Objector," 219. 3Ibid.

4. Ibid.234. 

5. See Table 4.1. 

6. Flynn, The Draft, 190, 198. 

7. Ibid., 204-5. 

8. Ibid., 205, and Flynn, "Hershey and the Conscientious Objector," 255. 

9. Flynn, The Draft,221. 

10. Selective Service System, Semi-Annual Report, 1971, report 1, 7. 

11. Flynn, The Draft, 246. 

12. Ibid., 242-244, 253.

13. Ibid., 253. 

14. Ibid., 254. 

15. Ibid.  

16. Ibid.  

17. Selective Service System, Annual Report,1965, 20. 

18. Selective Service System, Annual Report,1967, 24. 

19. See Table 4.2.

20. Selective Service System, Semi-Annual Report, 1969, report 2, 17. 

21. Reporter for Conscience' Sake, 27 (Jan 1970):2. The NISBCO calculated the ratios based on Selective Service figures.

22. I-A-O (willing to perform non-combat service in the military) were counted in the I-A (ready for service) category. 

23. Selective Service System, Semi-Annual Report, 1970, report 2, 9. 

24. Ibid., 8, and Selective Service System, Semi-Annual Report, 1971, report 1, 58. July 1970 numbers were not reported. 

25. Selective Service System, Semi-Annual Report, 1970, report 2, 8. 

26. Ibid.

27. Ibid.  

28. U.S. Selective Service System, Request for Records Disposition Authority, Job No. NC1-147-78-1, 2/22/78 and Robert Schoch and Gregory Lippolis, "Information on DSS & SSS Form 1, Sept. 24 1940-Nov. 1973, Selective Service Recurring Data Analysis Chart, 7/14/7," as cited in Parks, "United Methodist Conscientious Objector," 32.

29. Parks, "United Methodist Conscientious Objector," 116. 

30. Ibid., 37-38. 

31. Ibid., 56. 

32. Ibid., 57. 

33. Ibid., 100, 103. 

34. Ibid., 122-123. 

35. Ibid., 128.

36. Ibid., 61. 

37. Selective Service System, Annual Report, 1964, 15. 

38. Selective Service System, Annual Report, 1965, 15-16. 

39. Selective Service System, Annual Report, 1964, 15. 

40. "COs on Increase," Reporter for Conscience Sake, 28 (September 1971):4.

41. Selective Service System, Semi-Annual Report, 1970, report 2, 8. 

42. Palmer, "Time to Exorcise," 190. 

43. Selective Service System, Annual Report, 1965, 21 

44. "NSBRO Reports," Reporter for Conscience' Sake, 23 (Nov. 1966), p. 1. 

45. "Proposed Form for COs Draws Storm of Protest," Reporter for Conscience' Sake28 (December 1971), p. 4. 

46. "COs on Increase," Reporter for Conscience Sake, 28 (September 1971): 3.

47. "Further Statistics on CO Claims," Reporter for Conscience' Sake28 (October 1971), p. 4. 

48. Showalter, "Coverage of Conscientious Objectors," 53. 

49. Gerald R. Gioglio, Days of Decision : An Oral History of Conscientious Objectors in the Military During the Vietnam War(Trenton, N.J.: Broken Rifle Press, 1989), 7. 

50. Ibid., 115, 120, 135.55 

51. Ibid., 7. 

52. Curtis Tarr, 

53. Ibid., 89. By the Numbers,87, and Selective Service System, Semi-Annual Report, 1970, report 2, 7. 

54. NISBCO, "Survey of the Civilian Work Program," Swarthmore Peace Collection, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pennsylvania, as cited in Mansavage, "Alternatives to Arms," 47. 

55. "John D." [pseud.], correspondence with author, February 16. 1997.

56. Reporter for Conscience' Sake27 (May 1970): 4-5 

57. Selective Service System, Annual Report, 1966, 20. 

58. John A. Rohr, Prophets Without Honor(Nashville:Abingdon Press, 1971), 192.

59. Peter Dahl, interview by the author, tape recording, Seattle, Wash., 29 December 1997. For similar sentiments, see Parks, "United Methodist Conscientious Objector," 153 and Stoughton Lynd, "Selective Conscientious Objection; Notes on a Tradition," Worldview10 (February 4-10, March 1967):4.

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Introduction ] 1. The Development of Conscientious Objection Through World War I ] 2. World War II and the Origin of Modern Conscientious Objection ] 3. Legal History of Conscientious Objection ] [ 4. Conscientious Objection During the Vietnam War ] 5. The Religious Response to Conscientious Objection ] 6. Conclusion ] Tables and Charts ] Bibliography ]


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