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"By Reason of Religious Training and Belief..."


A History of 

Conscientious Objection and Religion

 during the Vietnam War


By Karl D. Nelson

Chapter III: 

Legal History of Conscientious Objection

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United States v. Seeger

Welsh v. United States

Gillette v. United States

Conclusion

 

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During the Vietnam War, the Supreme Court dealt with three significant conscientious objector cases. In doing so, the Court initially enlarged the definition of religion to include conscientious objectors outside of religious orthodoxy. Eventually, the Court again changed the definition of religion, this time providing for the exemption of nearly any sincere objector, regardless of the nature of his beliefs. However, the Court stopped short of exempting objectors to particular wars. This chapter examines the legal history of conscientious objection, specifically the three crucial Vietnam-era Supreme Court cases, United States v. Seeger, Welsh v. United States, and Gillette v. United States. As the previous chapters showed, conscientious objection was predominately a religious matter. The 1965 United States v. Seeger ruling allowed objection outside of the religious orthodoxy. Not until the 1970 Welsh v. United States case could non-religious objectors with philosophical or moral objections to war qualify for conscientious objection. In both cases, the only legally recognized form of conscientious objection was total pacifism. There was, however, a second category. Selective conscientious objectors (S.C.O.s) objected only to certain wars, usually on the grounds that a particular war was immoral or unjust. Although endorsed by many religious groups, the United States government had never recognized this category. In Gillette v. United States(1971), the Supreme Court upheld the government's position. In each of the cases under consideration the Court wrestled with the definition of religion. From 1965 to 1970, the specific legal definition of religion used by the courts and the Selective Service when dealing with conscientious objection changed from an orthodox view of religion to one where nearly any beliefs, no matter how political or philosophical, qualified as "religious." By the end of this period, the Court had stretched the definition of "religion" so wide that in this context the term nearly lost all meaning. º£Æ®³² ÀüÀï µ¿¾È, ´ë¹ý¿øÀº ¼¼°¡ÁöÀÇ Áß¿äÇÑ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ »ç°ÇÀ» ´Ù·ç¾ú´Ù. ±×¸®ÇÏ¿©, ¹ý¿øÀº Á¾±³Àû Á¤¼³ÀÇ ¿ÜºÎ¿¡¼­ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀ» Æ÷ÇÔÇÏ·Á´Â Á¾±³ÀÇ Á¤ÀǸ¦ ÃʱâºÎÅÍ È®ÀåÇÏ¿´´Ù. °á±¹, ¹ý¿øÀº ´Ù½Ã Á¾±³ÀÇ Á¤ÀǸ¦ ¹Ù²Ù¾úÀ¸¸ç, À̹ø¿¡´Â °³ÀÎÀÇ ½Å³äµéÀÇ ¼º°Ý°ú °ü°è¾øÀÌ, °ÅÀÇ ¸ðµç Áø½ÇÇÑ °ÅºÎÀڵ鿡 ´ëÇÑ ¸éÁ¦¸¦ ±ÔÁ¤ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×·¯³ª, ¹ý¿øÀº ƯÁ¤ÇÑ ÀüÀïµé¿¡ ´ëÇÑ °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀ» ¸éÁ¦ÇÔ¿¡¼­´Â ÃæºÐÇÏÁö ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. À̹ø ÀåÀº ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¹ý·üÀû ¿ª»ç, Ưº°È÷ º£Æ®³²Àü µ¿¾ÈÀÇ ´ë¹ý¿øÀÇ ¼¼°¡Áö °áÁ¤ÀûÀÎ ÆÇ·Êµé, Áï ¹ÌÇÕÁß±¹ ´ë ½Ã°Å, À£½¬ ´ë ¹ÌÇÕÁß±¹, ¹× Áú·¹Æ® ´ë ¹ÌÇÕÁß±¹ °ÇÀ» °ËÅäÇÑ´Ù. ÀÌÀüÀÇ Àåµé ¿¡¼­ º¸¿©ÁÖ¾úµíÀÌ, ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ´Â ¾ÐµµÀûÀ¸·Î Á¾±³Àû ¹®Á¦¿´´Ù. 1965³â ¹ÌÇÕÁß±¹ ´ë ½Ã°Å »ç°ÇÀÇ ÆÇ°áÀº °ÅºÎ¸¦ Á¾±³Àû Á¤¼³ ¿ÜºÎ¿¡¼­ Çã¿ëÇÏ¿´´Ù. 1970³â ´ë¿¡¼­¾ß ºñ·Î¼­, À£½¬ ´ë ¹ÌÇÕÁß±¹ ¼Ò¼Û°ÇÀº ÀüÀï¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿© öÇÐÀû ¶Ç´Â µµ´öÀû °ÅºÎ¸¦ ÇÏ´Â ºñÁ¾±³Àû °ÅºÎÀڵ鿡°Ô ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¿¡ ÀÚ°ÝÀ» ÁÙ ¼ö ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. µÎ°¡Áö ¼Ò¼Ûµé¿¡¼­, ¿ÀÁ÷ ¹ý·üÀûÀ¸·Î ÀÎÁ¤µÈ ÇüÅÂÀÇ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ´Â ÀüÀûÀ¸·Î ÆòÈ­ÁÖÀÇ¿´´Ù. ±×·¯³ª, µÎ¹øÂ°ÀÇ ¹üÁÖµµ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ¼±ÅÃÀû ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚ(SCO)µéÀº ¿ÀÁ÷ ƯÁ¤ÇÑ ÀüÀïµé¿¡ ´ëÇØ¼­ °ÅºÎÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, ÁÖ·Î ±× ÀÌÀ¯´Â ƯÁ¤ÇÑ ÀüÀïÀÌ ºñµµ´öÀûÀ̰ųª ºÎ´çÇϴٱ⠶§¹®À̾ú´Ù. ºñ·Ï ¸¹Àº Á¾±³ ´Üüµé¿¡ ÀÇÇÏ¿© ÁöÁöµÇ¾úÁö¸¸, ¹ÌÇÕÁß±¹ Á¤ºÎ´Â ÀÌ·± ¹üÁÖ¸¦ °áÄÚ ÀÎÁ¤ÇÏÁö ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. Áú·¹Æ® ´ë ¹ÌÇÕÁß±¹ ¼Ò¼Û¿¡¼­, ´ë¹ý¿øÀº Á¤ºÎÀÇ ÀÔÀåÀ» ÁöÁöÇÏ¿´´Ù. °è·ù ÁßÀÎ ¼Ò¼Ûµé °¢°¢¿¡¼­ ¹ý¿øÀº Á¾±³ÀÇ Á¤ÀÇ¿Í ¾¾¸§ÇÏ¿´´Ù. 1965³âºÎÅÍ 1970³â ±îÁö, ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¸¦ ó¸®ÇÔ¿¡ À־, ¹ýÁ¤µé°ú ´ëüº¹¹«¿¡ ÀÇÇÏ¿© »ç¿ëµÈ ±¸Ã¼Àû ¹ý·üÀû Á¤ÀÇ´Â, Á¾±³¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Á¤¼³Àû ½Ã°¢¿¡¼­ºÎÅÍ Á¤Ä¡ÀûÀ̵ç öÇÐÀûÀÌµç ¸ðµç ½Å³äµéÀ» "Á¾±³Àû"À̶ó°í ¿©±â´Â °Í±îÁö, ´Ù¾çÇß´Ù. ÀÌ ½Ã±âÀÇ ³¡ ¹«·Æ¿¡, ¹ý¿øÀº "Á¾±³"ÀÇ Á¤ÀǸ¦ ±¤ÀÇÀûÀ¸·Î È®ÀåÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç ÀÌ·± ¹è°æ¿¡¼­ ¿ë¾î´Â °ÅÀÇ ¸ðµç Àǹ̸¦ »ó½ÇÇß´Ù.
In 1965, the Selective Service still operated under the same conscientious objection clause that was passed in 1940. The law provided for those objectors who, "by reason of religious training and belief, [were] conscientiously opposed to participation in war in any form.1 Congress targeted for exemption only those men whose absolute pacifism was religiously based. Congress clarified its definition of religion in the Selective Service Act of 1948 by adding the "Supreme Being clause" to the C.O. provision, found in Section 6(j): Religious training and belief in this connection means an individual's belief in a relation to a Supreme Being involving duties superior to those arising from any human relation, but does not include essentially political, sociological, or philosophical views or a merely personal moral code.2 Congress periodically renewed the draft legislation throughout the 1950s and early 1960s with the "Supreme Being clause" intact. By doing so, Congress followed a centuries-old policy of only exempting religious objectors to all wars. 

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1965³â, ´ëüº¹¹«´Â ¾ÆÁ÷ 1940³â¿¡ Åë°úµÈ °Í°ú ¶È°°Àº ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ Á¶Ç× ¾Æ·¡¼­ ¿î¿µµÇ°í ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ÀÌ ¹ý·üÀº "Á¾±³Àû °¡¸£Ä§ ¹× ½Å³äÀ» ÀÌÀ¯·Î ¾î¶°ÇÑ ÇüÅÂÀÇ ÀüÀï¿¡µµ" Âü¿©ÇÔ¿¡ ¾ç½ÉÀûÀ¸·Î °ÅºÎÇÏ´Â °ÅºÎÀڵ鿡 ´ëÇÏ¿© ±ÔÁ¤ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ÀÇȸ´Â Á¾±³¸¦ ±â¹ÝÀ¸·Î ÇÏ´Â Àý´ëÀû ÆòÈ­ÁÖÀǸ¦ ¿ËÈ£ÇÏ´Â »ç¶÷µé¿¡°Ô¸¸ ¿ÀÁ÷ ¸éÁ¦¸¦ ÀǵµÇÏ¿´´Ù. ÀÇȸ´Â 1948³â ´ëüº¹¹«¹ý¿¡¼­ "Àý´ëÀû Á¸Àç Á¶Ç×"À» CO Á¶Ç׿¡ ºÎ°¡ÇÔÀ¸·Î½á Á¾±³ÀÇ Á¤ÀǸ¦ ¸íÈ®È÷ ÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, ÀÌ´Â 6Á¶jÇ׿¡ ´ÙÀ½°ú °°ÀÌ ³ªÅ¸³ª ÀÖ´Ù: ÀÌ¿Í °ü·ÃÇÏ¿© Á¾±³Àû °¡¸£Ä§ ¹× ½Å³äÀº ¾î¶² Àΰ£Àû °ü°è¿¡¼­ ºñ·ÔµÇ´Â Àǹ«µé º¸´Ùµµ ¿ì¼±ÇÔÀ» Æ÷ÇÔÇÏ´Â Àý´ëÀû Á¸Àç¿ÍÀÇ °ü°è¿¡ µû¸¥ °³ÀÎÀÇ ½Å³äÀ» ÀǹÌÇϸç, ÀÌ´Â ±Ùº»ÀûÀ¸·Î Á¤Ä¡Àû, »çȸÀû, ¶Ç´Â öÇÐÀû ½Ã°¢µéÀ̳ª ´Ü¼øÈ÷ °³ÀÎÀÇ µµ´öÀû À²¹ýÀ» Æ÷ÇÔÇÏÁö ¾Ê´Â´Ù. ÀÇȸ´Â "Àý´ëÀû Á¸Àç Á¶Ç×"À» °Çµå¸®Áö ¾ÊÀº ä, 1950³â´ë ¹× 1960³â´ë Ãʱ⿡ ÁÙ°ð ÁÖ±âÀûÀ¸·Î ¡º´¹ýÀ» °»½ÅÇØ¿Ô´Ù. ±×·¸°Ô ÇÔÀ¸·Î½á, ÀÇȸ´Â ¸ðµç ÀüÀïµé¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Á¾±³Àû °ÅºÎÀڵ鸸À» ¿ÀÁ÷ ¸éÁ¦ÇÔÀ¸·Î½á 1¼¼±â°¡ ³ÑÀº Á¤Ã¥À» µû¶ó¿Ô´Ù.

United States v. Seeger 

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In November 1964, two months after Congress sanctioned the escalation of the Vietnam conflict with the Tonkin Gulf Resolution, a case came before the Supreme Court that would affect the nature of conscientious objection for the duration of the war. When the Court handed down the United States v. Seeger decision on March 8, 1965, it substantially broadened the meaning of religious objection to war. Daniel Seeger came from a Catholic family in New York. He held a student deferment from 1955 to 1958. While still a student, Seeger applied for conscientious objector status. The draft board denied Seeger's application, and subsequent appeals were also turned down. Seeger was eventually convicted for refusing to be inducted into the armed forces.3 Working with the Central Committee for Conscientious Objectors, a C.O. advocacy organization, Seeger and his lawyers brought this case before the Supreme Court.4  Because of similarities in the cases, the Court decided the Seeger case together with two other challenges to the C.O. provision, United States v. Jakobson and Peter v. United States. Despite Seeger's Catholic upbringing, the beliefs he conveyed when filling out his Selective Service System forms did not fall within the religious mainstream of the day. Seeger claimed his "religion" was a "belief in and devotion to goodness and virtue for their own sakes, and a religious faith in a purely ethical creed."5 When asked about a Supreme Being, Seeger responded, "Of course, the existence of God cannot be proven or disproven, and the essence of his nature cannot be determined."6 Seeger qualified this by stating that his skepticism did "not necessarily mean lack of faith in anything whatsoever."7 Jakobson, also of New York, requested a non-combatant conscientious objector classification (I-A-O) in 1958. Later that year he made a request for I-O classification. Jakobson spoke of a "Godness" which was "the Ultimate Cause for the fact of the Being of the Universe."8 Like Seeger, Jakobson was convicted of failing to report for induction. He appealed on the grounds that he did indeed believe in a Supreme Being. A Court of Appeals reversed the decision because the Selective Service Appeal Board did not indicate if Jakobson's appeal had been granted on the grounds that he failed to qualify under the Supreme Being clause or that he was insincere.9 Forest Peter, of California, also refused to be inducted. He was not a member of a religious organization, but when asked about his beliefs, he responded, "you could call that a belief in the Supreme Being or God. These just do not happen to be the words I use."10  

1964³â 11¿ù, ÀÇȸ°¡ ÅëÅ·¸¸ Àǰá·Î º£Æ®³² ÀüÀÇ È®´ë¸¦ ºñÁØÇÑ 2 °³¿ù µÚ¿¡, ´ë¹ý¿ø¿¡´Â ÀüÀïÀÇ Áö¼Ó¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÇ ¼º°Ý¿¡ ¿µÇâÀ» ¹ÌÄ¡´Â ¼Ò¼ÛÀÌ Á¦±âµÇ¾ú´Ù. 1965³â 3¿ù 8ÀÏ, ¹ýÁ¤ÀÌ ¹ÌÇÕÁß±¹ ´ë ½Ã°Å¿¡ °áÁ¤À» ³»·ÈÀ» ¶§, ¹ýÁ¤Àº »ç½Ç»ó ÀüÀï¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Á¾±³Àû °ÅºÎÀÇ Àǹ̸¦ È®´ëÇÏ¿´´Ù. Daniel Seeger´Â ´º¿åÀÇ Ä«Å縯 °¡¹® Ãâ½ÅÀ̾ú´Ù. ±×´Â 1955³âºÎ³Ê 1958³â±îÁö Çлý À¯¿¹¸¦ ÁÖÀåÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¾ÆÁ÷ ÇлýÀ¸·Î¼­ Seeger´Â ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚ µî±ÞÀ» ½ÅûÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¡º´ À§¿øÈ¸´Â ½Ã°ÅÀÇ ½ÅûÀ» °ÅºÎÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, ÀÌ¿¡ µû¸¥ ÀÌÀÇ ¿ª½Ã ºÎ°áµÇ¾ú´Ù. Seeger´Â °á±¹ À°±º¿¡ ¡ÁýµÊÀ» °ÅºÎÇÔ¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿© ±â¼ÒµÇ¾ú´Ù. CO ¿ËÈ£ ´ÜüÀÎ [¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚ¸¦ À§ÇÑ Áß¾Ó À§¿øÈ¸]¿Í ÇÔ²² ÁغñÇÑ ³¡¿¡, Seeger¿Í ±×ÀÇ º¯È£»çµéÀº ÀÌ ¼Ò¼ÛÀ» ´ë¹ý¿ø¿¡ °¡Á®°¬´Ù. ¼Ò¼ÛµéÀÇ À¯»ç¼º ¶§¹®¿¡, ¹ýÁ¤Àº Seeger°ÇÀ» CO Á¶Ç׿¡ ´ëÇÑ ´Ù¸¥ µÎ°¡Áö Ç×¼Ò, ¹ÌÇÕÁß±¹´ë ¾ßÄß½¼ ¹× ÇÇÅÍ ´ë ¹ÌÇÕÁß±¹°ú, ÇÔ²² ¹­±â·Î ÇÏ¿´´Ù. SeegerÀÇ Ä«Å縯 ¾çÀ°¿¡µµ ºÒ±¸ÇÏ°í ´ëüº¹¹«Á¦µµ ¼­½Ä¿¡ ±â·ÏÇÏ¿´À» ¶§ÀÇ ±×°¡ °¡Áö°í ÀÖ´ø ½Å³äµéÀº ±× ½Ã´ëÀÇ Á¾±³Àû ÁÖ·ù¿¡ ¼ÓÇÏÁö ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. Seeger´Â ±×ÀÇ "Á¾±³"°¡ "¼±°ú ´ö ÀÚü¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¹ÏÀ½°ú Çå½ÅÀ̸ç, ¼ø¼öÇÏ°Ô À±¸®Àû ½ÅÁ¶¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Á¾±³Àû ½Å¾ÓÀÌ´Ù"°í ÁÖÀåÇÏ¿´´Ù. Àý´ëÀû Á¸Àç¿¡ ´ëÇØ ¹¯ÀÚ, Seeger´Â, "¹°·Ð Çϳª´ÔÀÇ Á¸Àç´Â Áõ¸íµÉ ¼öµµ ¾øÀ¸¸ç ¹ÝÁõµÉ ¼öµµ ¾øÀ¸¸ç ±×ÀÇ º»¼ºÀº °áÁ¤µÉ ¼ö ¾ø´Ù"°í ´ë´äÇÏ¿´´Ù. Seeger´Â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ È¸ÀÇÁÖÀǰ¡ "¹«¾ùÀ̵çÁö¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ½Å¾ÓÀ» °á¿©ÇÑ´Ù´Â °ÍÀ» ¹Ýµå½Ã ÀǹÌÇÏ´Â °ÍÀº ¾Æ´Ï´Ù"¶ó°í Áø¼úÇϸ鼭 ÀÌ¿¡ µ¡ºÙ¿´´Ù. ¶ÇÇÑ ´º¿å Ãâ½ÅÀÎ JakobsonÀº 1958³â ºñÀüÅõÀû ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚ ºÐ·ù(I-A-O)¸¦ ¿ä±¸ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±× ÇØÀÇ µÚ¿¡ ±×´Â I-O ºÐ·ù¸¦ ½ÅûÇÏ¿´´Ù. JakobsonÀº "¿ìÁÖÀÇ Á¸ÀçÀÇ »ç½Ç¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ±Ã±ØÀû ¿øÀÎ"ÀÎ "¼±"À» ÁÖÀåÇÏ¿´´Ù. Seegeró·³, JakobsonÀº ¡º´ ½Å°í¸¦ ±âÇÇÇÔÀ¸·Î ±â¼ÒµÇ¾ú´Ù. ±×´Â ±×°¡ »ç½Ç Àý´ëÀû Á¸À縦 ¹Ï°í ÀÖÀ½À» ±Ù°Å·Î Ç×¼ÒÇÏ¿´´Ù. Ç×¼Ò ¹ýÁ¤Àº °áÁ¤À» ¹øº¹ÇÏ¿´´Âµ¥, ´ëüº¹¹« Ç×¼ÒÀ§¿øÈ¸¿¡¼­ JakobsonÀÇ Ç×¼Ò°¡ ±×°¡ Àý´ëÀû Á¸Àç Á¶Ç׿¡ ÀڰݾøÀ½À̳ª ±×°¡ ºÒ¼º½ÇÇÔÀ» ÀÌÀ¯·Î 󸮵Ǿú´ÂÁö¸¦ °¡¸®Å°Áö ¾Ê¾Ò±â ¶§¹®À̾ú´Ù. ͏®Æ÷´Ï¾Æ Ãâ½ÅÀÇ Forest Peter´Â ¿ª½Ã ¸ðº´À» °ÅºÎÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×´Â Á¾±³Àû ´ÜüÀÇ ±¸¼º¿øÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï¾úÀ¸³ª, ±×ÀÇ ½Å³ä¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿© ¹°¾úÀ» ¶§, "´ç½ÅµéÀº ±×°ÍÀ» Àý´ëÀû Á¸Àç ¶Ç´Â Çϳª´Ô¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¹ÏÀ½À̶ó°í ÀÏÄÃÀ» ¼ö°¡ ÀÖ´Ù. À̰͵éÀº ´ÜÁö ³»°¡ »ç¿ëÇÏ´Â ´Ü¾îµéÀÌ ¾Æ´Ò »ÓÀÌ´Ù"¶ó°í ´ë´äÇÏ¿´´Ù.
In each of the three cases, the petitioners held beliefs that were outside of the religious orthodoxy. The Court made a point of the fact that none of the men were atheists.11 But each of the men did have a belief in some sort of a Supreme Being, and each was sincere in his beliefs. Seeger and his lawyers attacked the draft law on constitutional grounds. They argued that Section 6(j) violated the Establishment and Free Exercise Clauses of the First Amendment by not providing for non-religious objectors.12 They also contended that the law violated the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment by discriminating between theistic and nontheistic religions.13 The Court avoided this question by declining to rule on the constitutionality of the statute. Rather, the unanimous Court broadened the definition of religion. The Seeger case rested on the wording of the draft law. The law defined religious training and belief as an "individual's belief in a relation to a Supreme Being involving duties superior to those arising from any human relation."14 Seeger, Jakobson, and Peter had all been denied their objection because their beliefs did not fit in the traditional definition of a Supreme Being. So the Court re- wrote the definition, having concluded that Congress used the term "Supreme Being" (rather than "God") "so as to embrace all religions and to exclude essentially political, sociological, or philosophical views."15 To qualify for a religious exemption, the petitioner needed to hold beliefs that occupied a place "parallel to that filled by the orthodox belief in God."16 Any sincere belief, including those of Seeger, Jakobson, and Peter, qualified, even if the petitioners themselves would not classify themselves as "religious," so long as the beliefs were not political, sociological, or philosophical. ¡¡ °¢±â ¼¼°¡Áö ¼Ò¼Ûµé¿¡¼­, û¿øÀÚµéÀº Á¾±³Àû Á¤ÅëÀ» ¹þ¾î³­ ½Å³äµéÀ» °¡Áö°í ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ¹ýÁ¤Àº ±×µé Áß ¾Æ¹«µµ ¹«½Å·ÐÀÚ°¡ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó´Â »ç½Ç¿¡ ÁÖ¸ñÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×·¯³ª ±× »ç¶÷µé Á¦°¢±â´Â ÀÏÁ¾ÀÇ Àý´ëÀû Á¸Àç¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¹ÏÀ½À» °¡Áö°í ÀÖ¾úÀ¸¸ç, °¢ÀÚ´Â ±×µéÀÇ ¹ÏÀ½¿¡¼­ Áø½ÇÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×µéÀº ºñÁ¾±³Àû °ÅºÎÀڵ鿡 ´ëÇØ ±ÔÁ¤ÇÏÁö ¾ÊÀ½À¸·Î¼­ Á¦6Á¶jÇ×ÀÌ Çå¹ý Á¦ÀÏ ¼öÁ¤ Á¶Ç×ÀÇ ¼³¸³ ¹× ÀÚÀ¯·Î¿î Çà»ç¸¦ Ä§ÇØÇÏ¿´´Ù°í ÁÖÀåÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×µéÀº ¹ý·üÀÌ À¯½Å·Ð ¹× ¹«½Å·ÐÀûÀÎ Á¾±³µé »çÀÌ¿¡ Â÷º°À» µÒÀ¸·Î¼­ Çå¹ý Á¦5¼öÁ¤ Á¶Ç×ÀÇ Àǹ«Àû ÀýÂ÷¸¦ ħ¹üÇÏ¿´´Ù°í °­º¯ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¹ýÁ¤Àº ¹ý·ÉÀÇ ÇÕÇ强¿¡ ´ëÇØ °áÁ¤À» ³»¸®±â¸¦ °ÅºÎÇÔÀ¸·Î½á ÀÌ ¹®Á¦¸¦ ȸÇÇÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¿ÀÈ÷·Á, ¹ýÁ¤Àº ¸¸Àå ÀÏÄ¡·Î Á¾±³ÀÇ Á¤ÀǸ¦ ³ÐÇû´Ù. Seeger ¼Ò¼ÛÀº  ¡º´¹ýÀÇ Ç¥Çö¿¡ ´Þ·Á ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ¹ý·üÀº Á¾±³Àû °¡¸£Ä§ ¹× ¹ÏÀ½À» "¾î¶² Àΰ£Àû °ü·Ê¿¡¼­ ¹ß»ýÇÏ´Â °Íµé¿¡ ¿ì¼±ÇÏ´Â Àǹ«µéÀ» Æ÷ÇÔÇÏ´Â Àý´ëÀû Á¸Àç¿Í °ü·ÃµÈ °³ÀÎÀÇ ¹ÏÀ½"À¸·Î Á¤ÀÇÇÏ¿´´Ù. Seeger, Jakobson, ¹× Peter´Â ¸ðµÎ ±×µéÀÇ °ÅºÎ¸¦ ÀÎÁ¤¹ÞÁö ¸øÇß´Ù ¿Ö³ÄÇÏ¸é ±×µéÀÇ ¹ÏÀ½µéÀº Àý´ëÀû Á¸Àç¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÀüÅëÀû Á¤ÀÇ¿¡ ÀûÇÕÇÏÁö ¾Ê¾Ò±â ¶§¹®À̾ú´Ù. ±×·¡¼­ ¹ýÁ¤Àº Á¤ÀǸ¦ ´Ù½Ã ±â·ÏÇϸ鼭, ÀÇȸ´Â ("Çϳª´Ô"À̶ó±â º¸´Ù´Â)"Àý´ëÀû Á¸Àç"¸¦ "¸ðµç Á¾±³¸¦ Æ÷ÇÔÇÏ¸ç º»ÁúÀûÀ¸·Î Á¤Ä¡Àû, »çȸÇÐÀû, ¶Ç´Â öÇÐÀû ½Ã°¢À» ¹èÁ¦ÇÏ´Â" °ÍÀ¸·Î »ç¿ëÇÑ °ÍÀ̶ó°í °á·ÐÀ» ³»·È´Ù. Á¾±³Àû ¸éÁ¦¿¡ ÇÕ´çÇÏ·Á¸é û¿øÀÚ´Â "Çϳª´Ô¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Á¤ÅëÀû ¹ÏÀ½¿¡ ÀÇÇÏ¿© ä¿öÁö´Â °Í¿¡ ÆòÇàÇÏ´Â" À§Ä¡¸¦ Â÷ÁöÇÏ´Â ¹ÏÀ½µéÀ» Áö´Ò °ÍÀÌ ¿ä±¸µÈ´Ù. ¾î¶² Áø½ÇÇÑ ¹ÏÀ½À̶óµµ, Seeger, Jakobson, ¹× Peter¸¦ Æ÷ÇÔÇÏ¿©, ½ÉÁö¾î û¿øÀÚµéÀÌ ½º½º·Î¸¦ "Á¾±³Àû"À̶ó°í ºÐ·ùÇÏÁö ¾Ê´õ¶óµµ, ±× ¹ÏÀ½µéÀÌ Á¤Ä¡Àû, »çȸÇÐÀû ¶Ç´Â öÇÐÀûÀÎ °ÍÀÌ ¾Æ´Ñ ÇÑ, ÇÕ´çÇÏ´Ù°í ¿©°ÜÁø´Ù. 
The Selective Service responded to the Seeger decision with a brief note in its annual report to Congress for 1965, noting that the Court had "laid down a test for determining whether registrants who claim to be conscientious objectors meet the definition prescribed by Congress."17 The S.S.S. did not adapt its forms or materials to the Seeger case until August 30, 1968, over three years after Seeger was handed down, and over a year after Congress revised the C.O. provision.18 Throughout this period, applicants could use the Seeger case if they knew about it.19 Although the Selective Service apparently waited until Congress had acted on the Supreme Court ruling, the reason for the additional year delay is not known. When Congress renewed the draft on June 30, 1967, lawmakers incorporated Seeger into Section 6(j). Congress deleted any reference to a "Supreme Being," requiring only that the objector oppose all war "by reason of religious training and belief." The Selective Service reacted to this by revoking its definition of "religious training and belief" in accordance with the law.20 Still explicitly exempted from conscientious objection were those who held "essentially political, sociological, or philosophical views, or a merely personal moral code."21 In Congressional hearings, Gen. Lewis Hershey, the long-time director of the Selective Service, testified that the revised law "could very easily result in a substantial increase in the number of unjustified appeals for exemption."22 Difficulties arise when attempting to assess the impact of the Seeger decision in the Selective Service figures. As noted above, Seeger was not turned into law until 1967 and not incorporated into S.S.S. policy until 1968. Beginning in 1967, the number of men classified as C.O.s increased from 11,041 to 15,855 in 1969.23 However, the Seeger case cannot take all the credit for this increase. Nearly 350,000 men were drafted in 1966, compared to just over 100,000 during the previous year.24 Inductions stayed high until President Nixon reduced draft calls with his "Vietnamization" policies. These high induction figures likely account for some of the increase in conscientious objection. As inductions fell sharply, conscientious objector classifications rose. In other words, even though the chances of being drafted were falling, men were increasingly interested in conscientious objection. Other factors, including the growing unpopularity with the war and the phasing out of some deferments, may also have contributed to the increase in conscientious objection.25 The Supreme Court hoped its new C.O. test would be "less onerous" than earlier tests.26 However, some lower courts dealing with conscientious objection cases were unsatisfied with Seeger. One court complained that it was "forced" to grant a C.O. classification in a case where the defendant's beliefs were ambiguous.27 Another court stated that "[a]ny series of ideas which a person seriously holds or a philosophy of life which a person seeks to adhere to, should be granted the respected classification of religious conviction."28 As the Vietnam War became an increasingly divisive issue in American society, the problems with the Seeger ruling prompted the Court to take another look at conscientious objection. ¡¡

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´ëü º¹¹«´Â Seeger ÆÇ°á¿¡ ´ëÇØ 1965³â ÀÇȸ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¿¬·Ê º¸°í¿¡¼­ °£·«ÇÑ Å뺸·Î ´ëÀÀÇϸ鼭, ´ë¹ý¿øÀÌ "¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀ̶ó°í ÁÖÀåÇÏ´Â µî·ÏÀÚµéÀÌ ÀÇȸ°¡ ±ÔÁ¤ÇÑ Á¤ÀÇ¿¡ ÀûÇÕÇÑÁö¸¦ °áÁ¤ÇÔ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÆÇ°áÀ» ³»¾î ³õ¾Ò´Ù"°í ¾ð±ÞÇÏ¿´´Ù. Seeger ¼Ò¼ÛÀÇ ÆÇ°áÀÌ ³»·ÁÁø ÈÄ »ï ³â µÚ, ±×¸®°í ÀÇÈ­°¡ COÁ¶Ç×À» °³Á¤ÇÑ ÈÄ Àϳ⠵ÚÀÎ, 1968³â 8¿ù 30ÀϱîÁö  SSS´Â ±× ¼­½ÄµéÀ̳ª ÀÚ·áµéÀ» ¼öÁ¤ÇÏÁö ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. ÀÌ ±â°£ ³»³», ½ÅûÀÚµéÀº ¸¸ÀÏ ±×°ÍÀ» ¾Ë°í ÀÖ¾ú´Ù¸é, Seeger °ÇÀ» »ç¿ëÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ºñ·Ï ´ëüº¹¹«°¡ ¸í¹éÈ÷ ÀÇȸ°¡ ´ë¹ý¿øÀÇ ÆÇ°á¿¡ µû¶ó Á¶Ã³ÇÒ ¶§±îÁö ¸í¹éÈ÷ ±â´Ù¸®°í ÀÖ¾úÁö¸¸, Ãß°¡ÀûÀÎ ÀÏ ³âÀÇ Áö¿¬¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÀÌÀ¯´Â ¾Ë·ÁÁ® ÀÖÁö ¾Ê´Ù. 1967³â 6¿ù 30ÀÏ ÀÇȸ°¡ ¡º´À» ºÎȰÇÏ¿´À» ¶§, ¹ý·ü°¡µéÀº Seeger ÆÇ·Ê¸¦ Á¦6Á¶jÇ׿¡ º´ÇÕ½ÃÄ×´Ù. ÀÇȸ´Â "Àý´ëÀû Á¸Àç"¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¸ðµç ÂüÁ¶¸¦ »èÁ¦Çϰí, °ÅºÎÀÚ°¡ ¸ðµç ÀüÀïÀ» "Á¾±³Àû °¡¸£Ä§ ¹× ¹ÏÀ½"À» ÀÌÀ¯·Î ¹Ý´ëÇÑ´Ù´Â °Í¸¸À» Àǹ«·ÎÇÏ¿´´Ù. ´ëüº¹¹«´Â ¹ý·ü¿¡ ÀǰÅÇÏ¿© ÀÚüÀÇ "Á¾±³Àû °¡¸£Ä§ ¹× ¹ÏÀ½"ÀÇ Á¤ÀǸ¦ Ãë¼ÒÇÔÀ¸·Î½á ¿©±â¿¡ ¹ÝÀÀÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¾ÆÁ÷µµ °ø°ø¿¬È÷ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¿¡¼­ Á¦¿ÜµÈ »ç¶÷µéÀº "±Ùº»ÀûÀ¸·Î Á¤Ä¡Àû, »çȸÇлó ¶Ç´Â öÇÐÀû ½Ã°¢ ¶Ç´Â ´Ü¼øÈ÷ °³ÀÎÀû µµ´ö·üÀ» °ßÁöÇÏ´Â" »ç¶÷µéÀÌ´Ù. ÀÇȸÀÇ Ã»¹®È¸¿¡¼­, ´ëüº¹¹«ÀÇ ¿À·£ ±¹ÀåÀÎ Lewis Hershey À屺Àº, °³Á¤µÈ ¹ý·üÀº "¸Å¿ì ½±»ç¸® ¸éÁ¦¸¦ À§ÇÑ Á¤´çÇÏÁö ¸øÇÑ Ç×¼ÒÀÇ ¼ýÀÚÀÇ »ó´çÇÑ Áõ°¡¸¦ ÃÊ·¡ÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù°í" Áõ¾ðÇÏ¿´´Ù. ´ëüº¹¹« ¼öÄ¡¿¡¼­ Seeger ÆÇ°áÀÇ ¿µÇâÀ» Æò°¡ÇÏ·ÁÇÒ ¶§ ¹®Á¦µéÀÌ ¹ß»ýÇÑ´Ù. À§¿¡¼­ ¾ð±ÞÇÏ¿´µíÀÌ, SeegerÆÇ°áÀº 1967 ³â±îÁö ¹ý·ü·Î ÀüȯµÇÁö ¾Ê¾ÒÀ¸¸ç 1968 ³â±îÁö SSSÀÇ Á¤Ã¥À¸·Î º´ÇÕµÇÁö ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. 1967 ³â¿¡ ½ÃÀÛÇÏ¿©, 1969³â¿¡´Â CO·Î ºÐ·ùµÈ »ç¶÷µéÀÇ ¼ýÀÚ°¡ 11,041 ¸í¿¡¼­ 15,585 ¸íÀ¸·Î Áõ°¡ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×·¯³ª,  Seeger ÆÇ°áÀÌ ÀÌ·¯ÇÑ Áõ°¡¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¸ðµç ¿øÀÎÀ̶ó°í ÇÒ ¼ö ¾ø´Ù. °ÅÀÇ 350,000¸íÀÇ »ç¶÷µéÀÌ 1966³â¿¡ ¡º´µÇ¾úÀ¸¸ç, Àü ³â¿¡ ºñÇÏ¿© 100,000¸íÀÌ ¸¹Àº ¼öÄ¡ÀÌ´Ù. ´Ð½¼ ´ëÅë·ÉÀÇ "º£Æ®³²È­" Á¤Ã¥µé·Î¼­ ¡º´ ¼ÒÁýÀ» ÁÙÀÏ ¶§±îÁö ¸ðº´ ¼öÄ¡´Â ³ô¾Ò´Ù. ÀÌ·± ³ôÀº ¸ðº´ ¼öÄ¡´Â ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÀϺΠÁõ°¡¸¦ ¼³¸íÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù.¸ðº´ÀÌ ¶Ò ¶³¾îÁú ¶§¿¡, ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚ ºÐ·ù´Â ³ô¾ÆÁ³´Ù. ´Ù½Ã ¸»ÇÏÀÚ¸é, ¡º´µÉ °¡´É¼ºÀÌ ¶³¾îÁö°í ÀÖ´õ¶óµµ, »ç¶÷µéÀº Á¡Á¡ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¿¡ °ü½ÉÀ» °¡Á³´Ù. ´Ù¸¥ ¿äÀεéÀÌ ¶ÇÇÑ, ÀüÀï¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Á¡ÁøÀûÀÎ ºñÀα⵵¿Í ÀϺΠÀ¯¿¹µé¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÆóÁö¸¦ Æ÷ÇÔÇÏ¿©, ¶ÇÇÑ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÇ Áõ°¡¿¡ ±â¿©ÇßÀ» °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ´ë¹ý¿øÀº »õ·ÎÀº CO¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÆÇ°áÀÌ ÀÌÀüÀÇ ÆÇ°áº¸´Ùµµ "ÁüÀÌ ´ú µÇ±â¸¦" Èñ¸ÁÇß´Ù. ±×·¯³ª ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¸¦ ´Ù·ç´Â ÀϺΠÇÏ±Þ ¹ý¿øµéÀº Seeger ÆÇ°á¿¡ ºÒ¸¸À̾ú´Ù. ÇÑ ¹ýÁ¤Àº ÇǰíÀÇ ½Å³äµéÀÌ ¸ðÈ£ÇÑ °æ¿ì¿¡µµ CO ºÐ·ù¸¦ ÀÎÁ¤Çؾ߸¸ ÇÑ´Ù¸ç ÀÌÀǸ¦ Á¦±âÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¾î¶² ¹ýÁ¤Àº "°³ÀÎÀÌ ÁøÁöÇÏ°Ô ÁÖÀåÇÏ´Â ÀÏ·ÃÀÇ »ç»óµé ¶Ç´Â °³ÀÎÀÌ °í¼öÇϰíÀÚ ÇÏ´Â »îÀÇ Ã¶ÇÐÀº Á¾±³Àû ½Å³äÀ¸·Î¼­ »óÀÀÇÏ´Â ºÐ·ù°¡ ÀÎÁ¤µÇ¾î¾ß¸¸ ÇÑ´Ù"°í ¼±¾ðÇÏ¿´´Ù. º£Æ®³² ÀüÀïÀÌ ¹Ì±¹ »çȸ¿¡¼­ Á¡Â÷ÀûÀ¸·Î ºÐ¿­ÀûÀÎ ¹®Á¦·Î µÇ¾î°¡ÀÚ, Seeger ÆÇ°á¿¡ °ü·ÃµÈ ¹®Á¦µéÀº ¹ýÁ¤À¸·Î ÇÏ¿©±Ý ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ´Ù¸¥ ½Ã°¢À» °¡Áöµµ·Ï ÀçÃËÇÏ¿´´Ù.   

Welsh v. United States 

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The Supreme Court again took up the issue of conscientious objection in 1970 in Welsh v. United States. This case, the Court noted, was "strikingly similar" to the Seeger case.29 The petitioner, Elliott Welsh, was raised in a religious home, but like Seeger, had moved away from mainstream religion by the time he applied for conscientious objector status. He had moved so far, in fact, that Welsh did not consider his beliefs to fall within the definition of "religion," and he was quite emphatic on that point.30 When filling out the Selective Service form for conscientious objectors, Welsh crossed out the phrase "by reason of my religious training and belief."31 The statement he signed read:"I am, conscientiously opposed to participation in war in any form." As with Seeger, there was little question as to the sincerity of Welsh's beliefs.32 But to his draft board, and to later appeal boards and courts, Welsh's beliefs clearly fit into the "political, sociological, or philosophical views, or a merely personal moral code" category that explicitly fell outside the Congressional definition of conscientious objection. Welsh and his lawyers claimed that the conviction should be dismissed due to the broadened definition of religion from Seeger.33 They also attacked Section 6(j) on grounds of constitutionality, much like Seeger had. As with Seeger, the Court again chose to skirt around the issue of constitutionality. And as before, the Court found it necessary to broaden the meaning of "religion." Whereas Seeger was a unanimous decision, the Welsh case was decidedly less conclusive. Four justices, led by Justice Black, voted to broaden the definition of religion. Three justices dissented.34 Justice Harlan tipped the scale to Welsh's favor. He voted to overturn the conviction to "salvag[e] a congressional policy of long standing that would otherwise have to be nullified," not to broaden the definition of "religious."35 The Court looked back to the Seeger case where it had stated that it was important to determine if a registrant's beliefs were sincere and "in his own scheme of things, religious."36 With Welsh, the Court decided to broaden the definition even further, writing: We certainly do not think that [Section] 6(j)'s exclusion of those persons with "essentially political, sociological, or philosophical views or a merely personal moral code" should be read to exclude those who hold strong beliefs about our domestic and foreign affairs or even those whose conscientious objection to participation in all wars is founded to a substantial extent upon considerations of public policy.37 But With this logic, even political beliefs were considered religious if they were held deeply and sincerely enough by the registrant. The Court then used a semantic sleight-of-hand to work around the exemptions in the law. It claimed that if a man's beliefs fell under the new broad definition of religion then they could not logically be considered "essentially political, sociological, or philosophical."38 Soon after the Welsh ruling, the Selective Service, now led by Curtiss Tarr, updated its conscientious objection policy. Local Board Memorandum No. 107, released on July 6, 1970, incorporated the Welsh decision into S.S.S. policy. The S.S.S. reiterated the fact that a man must object to all wars, not just one specific war. The primary test was now to be a man's sincerity, not the nature or origin of his beliefs. The registrant's beliefs "must be the primary controlling force in the man's life."39 Tarr spent a good deal of time in the memorandum making sure the boards understood that the registrant's beliefs need not be traditional, and that a board could not dismiss a registrant's claim based on the incomprehensibility of his beliefs.40 A board could reject a claim only if the man was insincere or if his objection "rests solely upon consideration of policy, pragmatism, or expediency."41 Even though nearly any religious exemption was now allowed, mainstream religion was still the yardstick. The S.S.S. added a requirement that "[t]he registrant must demonstrate that his ethical or moral convictions were gained through training, study, contemplation, or other activity, comparable in rigor and dedication to the processes by which religious convictions are formulated."42 Tarr indicated that the Seeger-Welsh test worked, but in his report to Congress at the end of 1970, he mentioned that more training was needed for the local boards on this issue.43 Looking at Selective Service statistics, there was a substantial jump in the number of men classified I-O, from 15,855 in 1969 to 28,188 in 1970. The numbers were even higher in 1971 (36,713), but dropped off significantly in 1972 and 1973 as the draft wound down. It is difficult to determine how much the Welsh decision affected these numbers. Obviously, Welsh only affected the 1970 statistics from mid-June on, and as the monthly figures show, the rest of the year remained constant.44 Tarr mentions that he did not believe Welsh caused more C.O. applications, but that it probably has "influenced local boards to classify more of those who do apply into I-O."45

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´ë¹ý¿øÀº ´Ù½Ã 1970³â À£½¬ ´ë ¹ÌÇÕÁß±¹ ¼Ò¼Û¿¡¼­ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ ¹®Á¦¸¦ ¸Ã¾Ò´Ù. ÀÌ ¼Ò¼ÛÀº, ¹ýÁ¤ÀÌ ¾ð±ÞÇÏ´Â ¹Ù, Seeger ¼Ò¼Û°ú "ÇöÀúÇÏ°Ô À¯»çÇß´Ù". û¿øÀÚ  Elliott Welsh Á¾±³Àû °¡Á¤¿¡¼­ ¾çÀ°µÇ¾úÀ¸³ª,  Seegeró·³, ±×°¡ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ µî±Þ¿¡ ½ÅûÇÒ ¹«·Æ¿¡´Â ÁÖ·ù Á¾±³·ÎºÎÅÍ ¸Ö¾îÁ® ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ±×´Â ³Ê¹«³ª ¸Ö¾îÁ® ÀÖ¾úÀ¸¹Ç·Î, »ç½Ç»ó, Welsh´Â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ½Å³äµéÀÌ "Á¾±³"ÀÇ Á¤ÀÇ ¾È¿¡ ¼ÓÇÑ´Ù°í »ý°¢ÇÏÁö ¾Ê¾ÒÀ¸¸ç, ±×´Â ±× Á¡À» °­Á¶Çϰí ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀ» À§ÇÑ ´ëüº¹¹« ¼­½ÄÀ» ÀÛ¼ºÇÒ ¶§¿¡, Welsh´Â "³ªÀÇ Á¾±³Àû ÈÆ·Ã ¹× ¹ÏÀ½À» ÀÌÀ¯·Î"¶ó´Â ±¸ÀýÀ» ±×¾î ¹ö·È´Ù. ±×°¡ ¼­¸íÇÑ Áø¼úÀº ´ÙÀ½°ú °°´Ù: "³ª´Â, ¾î¶² ÇüÅÂÀÇ ÀüÀï¿¡µµ Âü¿©ÇÔÀ» ¾ç½ÉÀûÀ¸·Î °ÅºÎÇÑ´Ù." Seeger¿Í ¸¶Âù°¡Áö·Î, WelshÀÇ ½Å³äµéÀÇ Áø½Ç¼º¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿©´Â °ÅÀÇ Àǹ®ÀÌ ¾ø¾ú´Ù. ±×·¯³ª ±×ÀÇ Â¡º´ À§¿øÈ¸¿¡ ´ëÇØ¼­, ±×¸®°í ÈÄÀÏ Ç×¼Ò À§¿øÈ¸ ¹× ¹ýÁ¤µé¿¡¼­, WelshÀÇ ½Å³äÀº, ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÀÇȸÀÇ Á¤ÀÇÀÇ ¹Ù±ù¿¡ ºÐ¸íÈ÷ À§Ä¡ÇÏ´Â "Á¤Ä¡Àû, »çȸÇлó, ¶Ç´Â öÇÐÀû ½Ã°¢ ¶Ç´Â ´Ü¼øÈ÷ °³ÀÎÀû µµ´ö·ü¿¡ ¸í¹éÈ÷ ¼ÓÇÏ´Â °ÍÀ̾ú´Ù. Welsh¿Í ±×ÀÇ º¯È£»çµéÀº Seeger ÆÇ°á¿¡ µû¸¥ Á¾±³¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ±¤ÀÇÀÇ Á¤ÀÇ¿¡ ÀǰÅÇÏ¿© ±â¼Ò°¡ ÃëÇϵǾî¾ß ÇÑ´Ù°í ÁÖÀåÇÏ¿´´Ù.  ±×µéÀº ¿ª½Ã, Seeger¿Í ±×·¨´ø °Í°ú »ó´çÈ÷ À¯»çÇϰÔ, Á¦6Á¶jÇ×ÀÇ ÇÕÇ强ÀÇ ±Ù°Å¿¡ ´ëÇØ °ø°ÝÇÏ¿´´Ù. SeegerÀÇ ¼Ò¼Ûó·³, ¹ý¿øÀº ´Ù½Ã ÇÕÇ强ÀÇ ¹®Á¦¸¦  ÇÇÇØ°¡±â·Î ¼±ÅÃÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×¸®°í ÀÌÀüó·³, ¹ýÁ¤Àº "Á¾±³"ÀÇ Àǹ̸¦ ³ÐÈú Çʿ䰡 ÀÖÀ½À» ¹ß°ßÇÏ¿´´Ù. Seeger ÆÇ°áÀº ¸¸ÀåÀÏÄ¡ÀÇ °áÁ¤À̾ú´ø ¹Ý¸é¿¡, Welsh ¼Ò¼ÛÀº °áÁ¤ÀûÀ¸·Î °á·Ð¿¡ À̸£Áö ¸øÇß´Ù. 4¸íÀÇ ÆÇ»çµéÀº, ÆÇ»ç BlackÀÇ ÁÖµµÇÏ¿¡, Á¾±³ÀÇ Á¤ÀǸ¦ ³ÐÈú °Í¿¡ Ç¥¸¦ ´øÁ³´Ù. 3 ¸íÀÇ ÆÇ»çµéÀº ¹Ý´ëÇÏ¿´´Ù. ÆÇ»ç HarlanÀÌ Welsh°¡ À¯¸®ÇÏ°Ô Àú¿ïÀ» ´Þ¾Ò´ø °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ±×´Â ÆóÁöµÉ ¼öµµ ÀÖ´Â ÀÇȸÀÇ ¿À·¡ Áö¼ÓÇÏ´Â Á¤Ã¥À» »ì¸®±â À§ÇÏ¿©, "Á¾±³Àû"ÀÇ Á¤ÀǸ¦ È®ÀåÇϱâ À§Çؼ­°¡ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó, ±â¼Ò¸¦ µÚÁý±â·Î ÅõÇ¥ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¹ýÁ¤Àº Seeger ¼Ò¼ÛÀ» µÇµ¹¾Æ º¸¾ÒÀ¸¸ç, ±× °æ¿ì µî·ÏÀÚÀÇ ½Å³äµéÀÌ ÁøÁöÇϸç "ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ »ç¹°¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¹üÁÖ¿¡¼­, Á¾±³Àû"ÀÎÁö¸¦ °áÁ¤ÇÏ´Â °ÍÀÌ Áß¿äÇÏ´Ù°í ¼±¾ðÇÏ¿´´ø °ÍÀÌ´Ù. WelshÀÇ °æ¿ì, ¹ýÁ¤Àº ±× Á¤ÀǸ¦ ÇÑÃþ ´õ È®ÀåÇϱâ·Î °áÁ¤ÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, ´ÙÀ½°ú °°ÀÌ ±â·ÏÇÏ¿´´Ù: ¿ì¸®´Â ºÐ¸íÈ÷ Á¦6Á¶jÇ×ÀÌ "±Ùº»ÀûÀ¸·Î Á¤Ä¡Àû, »çȸÇлó, ¶Ç´Â öÇÐÀû ½Ã°¢µé ¶Ç´Â ´Ü¼øÈ÷ °³ÀÎÀû µµ´ö·üÀ» °¡Áø" »ç¶÷µéÀ» ¹èÁ¦ÇÔÀ̿츮ÀÇ ±¹³» ¹× ¿Ü±¹ ¹®Á¦µé¿¡ ´ëÇÑ °­ÇÑ ½Å³äµéÀ» °¡Áø »ç¶÷µéÀ̳ª ½ÉÁö¾î ¸ðµç ÀüÀï¿¡ Âü¿©ÇÔ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ°¡ »ó´ç ¹üÀ§¿¡¼­ °ø°ø Á¤Ã¥¿¡ ´ëÇÑ °í·Á À§¿¡¼­ Çü¼ºµÈ »ç¶÷µéÀ» ¹èÁ¦ÇÔÀ¸·Î ÀÌÇØµÇ´Â °ÍÀ¸·Î »ý°¢ÇÏÁö ¾Ê´Â´Ù. ±×·¯³ª ÀÌ·± ³í¸®·Î¼­´Â, ½ÉÁö¾î Á¤Ä¡Àû ½Å³äµéµµ ±×°ÍµéÀÌ µî·ÏÀÚ°¡ ±í°í ÁøÁöÇÏ°Ô ÁÖÀåÇÏ´Â °ÍÀ̶ó¸é Á¾±³ÀûÀÎ °ÍÀ¸·Î ¿©°ÜÁö´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ¹ýÁ¤Àº ´ç½Ã ¹ý·ü¿¡¼­ Á¦¿ÜµÊÀ» ÇÇÇØÇϱâ À§ÇÏ¿© ÀǹÌÇлóÀÇ ¼úÃ¥À» »ç¿ëÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¹ýÁ¤Àº ¸¸ÀÏ ¾î¶² »ç¶÷ÀÇ ½Å³äÀÌ Á¾±³¿¡ ´ëÇÑ »õ·Î¿î ±¤ÀÇÀÇ °³³ä¿¡ ¼ÓÇÑ´Ù¸é "³í¸®ÀûÀ¸·Î "º»ÁúÀûÀ¸·Î Á¤Ä¡Àû, »çȸÇлó, µµ´Â öÇÐÀû"ÀÎ °ÍÀ¸·Î ¿©°ÜÁú ¼ö ¾ø´Ù´Â ÁÖÀåÀÌ´Ù. Welsh ÆÇ°á¿¡ °ðÀ̾, ´ëüº¹¹«´Â, ÀÌÁ¦ Curtiss TarrÀÇ ÁöÈÖ ¾Æ·¡¼­, ÀÚüÀÇ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Á¤Ã¥À» »õ·ÎÀÌ ÇÏ¿´´Ù. 1970³â 7¿ù 6ÀÏ ¹èÆ÷µÈ Áö¿ª À§¿øÈ¸ ȸº¸´Â Welsh °áÁ¤À» SSS Á¤Ã¥¿¡ Èí¼öÇÏ¿´´Ù. SSS´Â °³ÀÎÀÌ ÇѰ¡Áö ±¸Ã¼Àû ÀüÀï¿¡ ´ëÇØ¼­°¡ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó ¸ðµç ÀüÀïµé¿¡ ¹Ý´ëÇÑ´Ù´Â Á¡À» µÇÇ®ÇÏ¿´´Ù. Áß¿äÇÑ ½Ã±Ý¼®Àº ÀÌÁ¦ °³ÀÎÀÇ Áø½Ç¼ºÀ̾î¾ß Çϸç, ±×ÀÇ ½Å³äµéÀÇ ¼º°ÝÀ̳ª Ãâó°¡ ¾Æ´Ñ °ÍÀÌ´Ù. µî·ÏÀÚÀÇ ½Å³äµéÀº "¹Ýµå½Ã ±× »ç¶÷ÀÇ »î¿¡¼­ ÁÖµÈ ÅëÁ¦·ÂÀ̾î¾ß¸¸ ÇÑ´Ù." Tarr´Â »ó´çÇÑ ½Ã°£À» À§¿øÈ¸µéÀÌ µî·ÏÀÚÀÇ ½Å³äµéÀÌ ÀüÅëÀûÀÏ Çʿ䰡 ¾øÀ¸¸ç À§¿øÈ¸°¡ ±×ÀÇ ½Å³äµéÀÇ ³­ÇؼºÀ» ±âÃÊ·Î µî·ÏÀÚÀÇ ÁÖÀåÀ» ±â°¢ÇÒ ¼ö ¾øÀ½À» ÀÌÇØÇϵµ·Ï È®½ÇÈ÷ Çϱâ À§ÇÑ ºñ¸Á·Ï¿¡ »ç¿ëÇß´Ù. À§¿øÈ¸´Â ¿ÀÁ÷ ±× »ç¶÷ÀÌ ºÒ¼º½ÇÇϴٰųª ±×ÀÇ °ÅºÎ°¡ "¿ÀÁ÷ Á¤Ã¥, ½Ç¿ëÁÖÀÇ, ¶Ç´Â ½Ã±Þ¼ºÀÇ °í·Á¿¡ ÀÇÁ¸Çϰí ÀÖ´Ù¸é ±× ÁÖÀåÀ» ±â°¢ÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù. ÀÌÁ¦ ºñ·Ï °ÅÀÇ ¸ðµç Á¾±³Àû ¸éÁ¦°¡ Çã¿ëµÇÁö¸¸, ÁÖ·ù Á¾±³°¡ ¾ÆÁ÷Àº Àã´ëÀÌ´Ù. SSS ´ÙÀ½°ú °°Àº Àǹ«»çÇ×À» Ãß°¡Çß´Ù: "µî·ÏÀÚ´Â ¹Ýµå½Ã ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ À±¸®Àû ¶Ç´Â µµ´öÀû ½Å³äµéÀÌ ÈÆ·Ã, ¿¬±¸, ¸í»ó, ¶Ç´Â ±âŸ Ȱµ¿À» ÅëÇÏ¿© ¾ò¾îÁø °ÍÀ̸ç, À̰͵éÀÌ  Á¾±³Àû ½Å³äµéÀÌ Çü¼ºµÇ´Â ¾ö°ÝÇÔ ¹× Çå½Å°ú ºñ°ßµÉ ¼ö ÀÖÀ½À» Áõ¸íÇÏ¿©¾ß ÇÑ´Ù." Tarr´Â, Seeger-Welsh ÆÇ°áÀÌ ÀÛ¿ëÇßÀ½À» ¾Ï½ÃÇßÀ¸¸ç, 1970³â ¸»¿¡ ÀÇȸ¿¡ º¸³»´Â ±×ÀÇ º¸°í¼­¿¡¼­ ±×´Â  ÀÌ ¹®Á¦¿¡ °üÇÏ¿© Áö¿ª À§¿øÈ¸¿¡°Ô ÇÊ¿äÇÑ Ãß°¡Àû ÈÆ·ÃÀÌ ÇÊ¿äÇÏ´Ù°í ¾ð±ÞÇß´Ù. ´ëüº¹¹«ÀÇ Åë°è¸¦ »ìÆìº¸Æí,  I-O·Î ºÐ·ùµÈ »ç¶÷µéÀÇ ¼öÄ¡¿¡, 1969³â 15,855¸í¿¡¼­ºÎÅÍ 1970³â 28,188¸íÀ¸·Î¼­, Çö°ÝÇÑ Áõ°¡°¡ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ±× ¼öÄ¡µéÀº ½ÉÁö¾î 1971³â¿¡´Â 36,713¸íÀ¸·Î¼­ ´õ¿í ³ô¾ÒÀ¸³ª, 1972³â ¹× 1973³â¿¡´Â ¡º´ÀÌ Àæ¾Æµé¸é¼­ »ó´çÇÑ °¨¼Ò°¡ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. Welsh ÆÇ°áÀÌ ÀÌµé ¼öÄ¡¿¡ ¾ó¸¶³ª ¿µÇâÀ» ÁÖ¾ú´ÂÁö °¡´ÆÇϱâ´Â ¾î·Æ´Ù. ¸í¹éÇÑ °ÍÀº, WelshÆÇ°á¤©Àº ¿ÀÁ÷ 6¿ù Áß¼ø ¹«·ÆÀÇ 1970³â Åë°è¿¡ ¿µÇâÀ» ÁÖ¾úÀ¸³ª, ¿ùº° ¼öÄ¡µéÀÌ º¸¿©ÁÖµíÀÌ ³ª¸ÓÁö ÇØµéÀº º¯È­°¡ ¾ø¾ú´Ù. TarrÀº ¾ð±ÞÇϱ⸦ ±×´Â Welsh ÆÇ°áÀÌ ´õ ¸¹Àº CO ½ÅûµéÀ» ¾ß±âÇÏÁö´Â ¾Ê¾ÒÀ¸³ª, ±×°ÍÀÌ ¾Æ¸¶µµ "Áö¿ª À§¿øÈ¸µéÀÌ I-O¿¡ ½ÅûÀÚµé Áß¿¡¼­ ´õ ¸¹Àº »ç¶÷µéÀ» ºÐ·ùÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖµµ·Ï ¿µÇâÀ» ÁÖ¾ú´Ù°í ¹Ï´Â´Ù"°í Çß´Ù.

Gillette v. United States 

Áú·¹Æ® ´ë ¹ÌÇÕÁß±¹

Section 6(j) faced one final attack before the Vietnam War ended. In Gillette v. United States, the two petitioners, Gillette and Negre, tried like Seeger and Welsh to claim that Section 6(j) was unconstitutional. But unlike the previous cases before the Court, Gillette and Negre did not claim to object to all war. Rather, they specifically objected to the Vietnam War. The opinion shown by the two petitioners is known as "selective conscientious objection." Selective conscientious objection is nearly as old as the type of objection practiced by Seeger and Welsh. Selective conscientious objection is most often embodied in the "just war" theory, which has long resided within the Catholic tradition. Gillette, "based on a humanist approach to religion," found the Vietnam War to be unjust. Gillette wrote: "I object to any assignment in the United States Armed Forces while this unnecessary and unjust war is being waged, on the grounds of religious belief specifically 'Humanism.' This essentially means respect and love for man, faith in his inherent goodness and perfectability [sic], and confidence in his capability to improve some of the pains of the human condition."46 He did state that he was willing to serve in time of national defense, or in a peace-keeping situation.47 Vietnam, he believed, met neither of these two conditions. Louis Negre, a devout Catholic, sought a discharge from the military. He had allowed himself to be inducted because he wanted to "understand the Army's explanation of its reasons for violence in Vietnam."48 By the time he had finished training, he had made up his mind. He applied for a C.O. discharge on the grounds of the "just war" theory.49 By 1971 a number of major Protestant denominations, including the Presbyterian Church in the United States, the Lutheran Church in America, the Disciples of Christ, and the United Church of Christ, had passed resolutions supporting selective conscientious objection.50 On the other hand, a number of denominations voted down resolutions supporting selective conscientious objection.51 The issue was quite contentious, provoking one United Church congregation to threaten withdrawal from the denomination if the denomination supported selective objectors.52 Despite acceptance by Catholics and non-Catholics alike, the U.S. government had never endorsed the Just War Theory. Since 1917, the draft laws stated that only those who were opposed to "war in any form" may be exempted from military service.53 The Court's decision, handed down on March 8, 1971, upheld the government's position.54 The Court held that, even if the objection was religious in nature, selective objection violated the draft law.55 The Court also rejected the constitutional challenge. Negre and Gillette argued that the law interfered with their free exercise of religion because it did not allow religious selective objection and that by specifying a religious belief, Congress was establishing a religion. The Court found that the section did not discriminate and that it focused on individual conscience, not group membership or creed. Furthermore, the section was "not designed to interfere with any religious practice and does not penalize any theological position."56 The petitioners also held that Section 6(j) discriminated between religions, favoring those that qualify for conscientious objector status, in violation of the Fifth Amendment's "equal protection" clause. The Court also held that Section 6(j) "survives the Establishment Clause because there are neutral, secular reasons to justify the line that Congress has drawn."57 The operation of the Selective Service naturally remained unchanged as a result of the Gillette case. In anticipation of the case, the S.S.S. had commented on the possible effects of allowing selective conscientious objection. It concluded that the S.S.S. "probably could not continue to operate" under selective conscientious objection. "It is doubtful," the S.S.S. wrote, "that local boards could cope with the decisions on sincerity" that selective objection would raise. Based on the level of anti-Vietnam protest at the time, there certainly would have been a drastic jump in the number of conscientious objectors. In a system already experiencing difficulty placing C.O.s in alternate service, selective conscientious objection would have been disastrous. 

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Á¦6Á¶jÇ×Àº º£Æ®³² ÀüÀïÀÌ ³¡³ª±â Àü¿¡ ÇѰ¡Áö ¸¶Áö¸· °ø°Ý¿¡ Á÷¸éÇß´Ù. Áú·¹Æ® ´ë ¹ÌÇÕÁß±¹ ¼Ò¼Û¿¡¼­, µÎ û¿øÀÚÀÎ Gillette¿Í Negre´Â, Seeger¿Í Welshó·³ Á¦6Á¶jÇ×ÀÌ ºñÇå¹ýÀûÀ̶ó°í ÁÖÀåÇÏ·Á ½ÃµµÇß´Ù. ±×·¯³ª ¹ýÁ¤¿¡¼­ÀÇ ÀÌÀüÀÇ ¼Ò¼Ûµé°ú´Â ´Þ¸®, Gillette¿Í Negre´Â ¸ðµç ÀüÀïÀ» °ÅºÎÇÑ´Ù°í ÁÖÀåÇÏÁö ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. ¿ÀÈ÷·Á, ±×µéÀº ±¸Ã¼ÀûÀ¸·Î º£Æ®³² ÀüÀï¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿© °ÅºÎÇÏ¿´´Ù. µÎ û¿øÀÚ°¡ º¸¿©ÁØ ÀǰßÀº "¼±ÅÃÀû ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ"·Î ¾Ë·ÁÁ® ÀÖ´Ù. ¼±ÅÃÀû ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ´Â Seeger¿Í Welsh°¡ ½ÇÇàÇß´ø °Í ¸¸Å­À̳ª °ÅÀÇ ¿À·¡µÈ °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ¼±ÅÃÀû ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ´Â ´ëüÀûÀ¸·Î ÈçÈ÷ "Á¤ÀÇÀÇ ÀüÀï"À̷п¡ ±¸Ã¼È­µÇ¾î ÀÖÀ¸¸ç, À̰ÍÀº Ä«Å縯ÀÇ ÀüÅë ¾È¿¡¼­ ¿À·§µ¿¾È À¯ÁöµÇ¾î ¿Ô´ø °ÍÀÌ´Ù. Gillette´Â, "Á¾±³¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Àι®ÁÖÀÇÀÚÀÇ ½Ãµµ¿¡ ±Ù°ÅÇÏ¿©," º£Æ®³² ÀüÀïÀ» Á¤ÀÇ·ÓÁö ¸øÇÏ´Ù´Â °ÍÀ» ¾Ë¾Ò´Ù. Gillette´Â ±â·ÏÇÏ¿´´Ù: "³ª´Â Áö±ÝÀÇ ºÒÇÊ¿äÇϰí Á¤´çÇÏÁö ¸øÇÑ ÀüÀïÀÌ ½ÇÇàµÇ´Â ÇÑ, Á¾±³Àû ½Å³ä, ƯÈ÷ 'Àηù¾Ö'¸¦ ÀÌÀ¯·Î, ¹ÌÇÕÁß±¹ÀÇ ±º´ë¿¡ ¹è¼ÓÀ» °ÅºÎÇÑ´Ù. À̰ÍÀº ±Ùº»ÀûÀ¸·Î Àΰ£¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Á¸¾ö°ú »ç¶û, »ç¶÷¿¡°Ô ³»ÀçµÈ ¼±ÇÔ°ú ¿ÏÀü¼º¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¹ÏÀ½, ±×¸®°í Àΰ£ÀÇ »óÅ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ °íÅëµéÀÇ ÀϺθ¦ °³¼±ÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´Â »ç¶÷ÀÇ ´É·Â¿¡ ´ëÇÑ È®½ÅÀ» ÀǹÌÇÑ´Ù." ±×´Â ±¹°¡¸¦ ¹æ¾îÇÏ´Â ¶§¿¡, ¤¨´Â ÆòÈ­ À¯Áö »óȲ¿¡ ±â²¨ÀÌ º¹Á¾Çϸ®¶ó°í Áø¼úÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×°¡ ¹Ï±â¿¡ º£Æ®³² ÀüÀïÀº ÀÌµé µÎ°¡Áö »óȲ Áß ¾î´À °Íµµ ÃæÁ·½ÃŰÁö ¸øÇß´Ù. µ¶½ÇÇÑ Ä«Å縯ÀÎ Louis Negre´Â ±º´ë¿¡¼­ Á¦´ë¸¦ ¿øÇß´Ù. ±×´Â º£Æ®³²¿¡¼­ÀÇ Æø·Â¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÀÌÀ¯¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ±º´ëÀÇ ¼³¸íÀ» ±ú´Ý±â ¿øÇßÀ¸¹Ç·Î ½º½º·Î ¸ðº´µÇ±â·Î Çã¶ôÇÑ °ÍÀ̾ú´Ù. ±×°¡ ÈÆ·ÃÀ» ¸¶Ä¥ ¹«·Æ¿¡, ±×´Â °á½ÉÀ» ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×´Â "Á¤ÀÇÀÇ ÀüÀï" ÀÌ·ÐÀ» ÀÌÀ¯·Î CO·Î¼­ Á¦´ë¸¦ ½ÅûÇÏ¿´´Ù. 1971³â, Àå·Î±³, ·çÅͱ³, ±×¸®½ºµµÀÇ Á¦ÀÚ±³, ¹× ±×¸®½ºµµ ¿¬ÇÕ±³È¸ µî, ¸¹Àº ÁÖ¿ä °³½Å±³ Á¾ÆÄµéÀÌ ¼±ÅÃÀû ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¸¦ ÁöÁöÇÏ´Â °áÀǸ¦ Åë°ú½ÃÄ×´Ù. ÇÑÆí, ¸¹Àº ¼öÀÇ Á¾ÆÄµéÀÌ ¼±ÅÃÀû ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¸¦ ÁöÁöÇÔ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ °áÀÇ¿¡ ¹Ý´ëÇ¥¸¦ ´øÁ³´Ù. ¹®Á¦´Â ¸Å¿ì °Ý·ÄÇØÁ®¼­, ÇÑ °÷ÀÇ ¿¬ÇÕ ±³È¸ ȸÁßÀº ¸¸ÀÏ ¼±ÅÃÀû °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀ» ÁöÁöÇÑ´Ù¸é Á¾ÆÄ¿¡¼­ Å»ÅðÇÒ °ÍÀ̶ó°í À§ÇùÇÒ Áö°æ¿¡ À̸£·¶´Ù. Ä«Å縯 ¹× ºñ Ä«Å縯ÀÌ ´Ù ÇÔ²² ½ÂÀÎÇÏ¿´À½¿¡µµ ºÒ±¸Çϰí, ¹Ì±¹ Á¤ºÎ´Â "Á¤ÀÇÀÇ ÀüÀï ÀÌ·Ð"À» °áÄÚ ÁöÁöÇÏÁö ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. 1917³â ÀÌÈÄ, ¡º´¹ýµéÀº, ¿ÀÁ÷ "¸ðµç ÇüÅÂÀÇ ÀüÀï"¿¡ ¹Ý´ëÇÏ´Â »ç¶÷µé¸¸ÀÌ º´¿ª¿¡¼­ ¸éÁ¦µÉ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù°í ¼±¾ðÇÏ¿´´Ù.  1971³â 3¿ù 8ÀÏ ³»·ÁÁø ¹ý¿øÀÇ ÆÇ°áÀº, Á¤ºÎÀÇ ÀÔÀåÀ» ÁöÁöÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¹ý¿øÀº, ºñ·Ï °ÅºÎ°¡ º»Áú¿¡ À־ Á¾±³ÀûÀÌÁö¸¸, ¼±ÅÃÀû °ÅºÎ´Â ¡º´¹ýÀ» À§¹ÝÇÏ´Â °ÍÀ̶ó°í ÁÖÀåÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¹ý¿øÀº ¶ÇÇÑ Çå¹ýÀûÀÎ ÀÌÀǸ¦ ºÎÁ¤Çß´Ù. Negre¿Í Gillette´Â ¹ý·üÀÌ Á¾±³ÀûÀÎ ¼±ÅÃÀû °ÅºÎ¸¦ Çã¿ëÇÏÁö ¾ÊÀ¸¹Ç·Î Á¾±³¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÀÚÀ¯·Î¿î Çà»ç¸¦ Ä§ÇØÇßÀ¸¸ç Á¾±³Àû ½Å³äÀ» °¡¸®Å³ ¶§¿¡ ÀÇȸ´Â Á¾±³¸¦ ±ÔÁ¤Çϰí ÀÖ´Ù°í ÁÖÀåÇß´Ù. ¹ýÁ¤Àº Á¶Ç×ÀÌ Â÷º°À» µÎÁö ¾Ê¾ÒÀ¸¸ç Áý´ÜÀû ÀÚ°Ý ¶Ç´Â ½ÅÁ¶°¡ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó °³ÀÎÀÇ ¾ç½É¿¡ ÃÊÁ¡À» ¸ÂÃá °ÍÀ̶ó°í º¸¾Ò´Ù. ´õ ³ª¾Æ°¡¼­, Á¶Ç×Àº "¾î¶°ÇÑ Á¾±³Àû °üÇà¿¡µµ °³ÀÔÇÏÁö ¾ÊÀ¸¸ç ¾î¶°ÇÑ ½ÅÇÐÀû ÀÔÀåµµ ó¹úÇÏÁö ¾Êµµ·Ï ±ÔÁ¤µÇ¾ú´Ù´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù. û¿øÀÚµéÀº ¶ÇÇÑ Á¦6Á¶jÇ×ÀÌ Á¾±³ °£¿¡ Â÷º°À» µÎ°í ÀÖÀ¸¸ç Á¦ 5 ¼öÁ¤ Çå¹ýÀÇ "µ¿µîÇÑ º¸È£" Á¶Ç×À» À§¹ÝÇÏ¿© ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚ µî±Þ¿¡ ÀûÇÕÇÑ »ç¶÷µé¿¡°Ô¸¸ À¯¸®Çϵµ·Ï µÇ¾î ÀÖ´Ù°í ÁÖÀåÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¹ý¿øÀº ¶ÇÇÑ Á¦6Á¶jÇ×ÀÌ ÀÇȸ°¡ ±×¾î ³õÀº ¼±À» Á¤´çÈ­Çϱâ À§ÇÏ¿© Á߸³ÀûÀÌ¸ç ¼¼¼ÓÀûÀÎ ÀÌÀ¯µéÀ» °¡Áö°í ÀÖÀ¸¹Ç·Î "±ÔÁ¤" Á¶Ç׿¡ ÀûÇÕÇÏ´Ù°í ÆÇ½ÃÇÏ¿´´Ù. ´ëüº¹¹«ÀÇ ¿î¿µÀº ÀÚ¿¬È÷ Gillette ¼Ò¼ÛÀÇ °á°ú¿¡µµ º¯ÇÔÀÌ ¾ø¾ú´Ù. ¼Ò¼ÛÀ» ³»´Ù º¸¸é¼­ SSS´Â ¼±ÅÃÀû ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¸¦ Çã¿ëÇÔ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ °¡´ÉÇÑ °á°úµé¿¡ ´ëÇØ ³íÆòÇÏ¿´´Ù. °á·ÐÀ» ³»¸®±â¸¦, ¼±ÅÃÀû ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ ¾Æ·¡¼­´Â SSS°¡ "¾Æ¸¶µµ °è¼ÓÇØ¼­ ÀÛ¿ëÇÒ ¼ö ¾øÀ»" °ÍÀ̶ó°í Çß´Ù. SSS´Â ±â·ÏÇϱâ·Î, "Áö¿ª À§¿øÈ¸°¡ ¼±ÅÃÀû °ÅºÎ°¡ Á¦±âÇÏ´Â Áø½Ç¼º¿¡ ´ëÇÑ °áÁ¤µéÀ» ó¸®ÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖÀ» Áö Àǽɽº·´´Ù"°í ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±× ½Ã´ëÀÇ º£Æ®³² ¹ÝÀü ¿îµ¿ÀÇ ½Éµµ¿¡ ºñÃß¾î º¸°Ç´ë ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚ µéÀÇ ¼öÄ¡´Â ¸í¹éÈ÷ ¾öû³­ Áõ°¡°¡ ÀÖÀ» ¼ö°¡ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ÀÌ¹Ì COµéÀ» ´ëü º¹¹«¿¡ ¹èÄ¡ÇÔ¿¡ ¾î·Á¿òÀ» °Þ°í ÀÖ´ø Á¦µµÇÏ¿¡¼­, ¼±ÅÃÀû ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ´Â Àç¾Ó°ú °°¾ÒÀ» °ÍÀÌ´Ù.

Conclusion 

°á·Ð

The draft, and the need for a conscientious objection provision, ended on July 1, 1973.58 The nature of this provision in 1973 was very different from the one used at the start of the Vietnam War. In the interim, the Supreme Court broadened, then stretched, the meaning of "religion" as it related to conscientious objection. But despite allowing nearly any sincere objection to all war, the Court did not allow selective objection, even if it was based on an established religious belief like the "just war" theory. Throughout the three cases, the Court was able to avoid ruling against either the aspects of the conscription law or the constitutionality of the draft. Rather, it chose to expand the meaning of "religion" to the point where the definition was almost meaningless. 

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Footnotes


1. Statutes at Large 54 (1940):889. Emphasis added. 

2. Statutes at Large 62 (1948):613. 

3. United States v Seeger 380 US 166-67 (1965). 

4. Mansavage, "Alternatives to Arms," 24. 

5. Seeger, 380 US 166-7. 

6. Robert L. Babin, "The Conscientious Objection:A Study in Legal Efficacy"(Ph.D. diss., Northwestern University, 1967), 54-57, as cited in Mansavage, "Alternatives to Arms," 23. 

7. Seeger, 380 US 166-7. 

8. Ibid., 167-8. 

9. Ibid.  

10. Ibid., 169.

11. Ibid., 173. 

12. "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof..." U.S. Constitution, amend. 1. For the legal argument, see Seeger, 380 US 165, and Bruce Houston, "Conscientious Objectors:The Aftermath of United States v. Seeger" Albany Law Review 30 (June 1966):307, 311. 

13. Seeger, 380 US 165, Houston, "Conscientious Objectors," 307, and Robert L. Rabin, "When is a Religious Belief Religious:United States v. Seegerand the Scope of Free Exercise," Cornell Law Quarterly, 51 (Winter 1966):237. 

14. Statutes at Large 62 (1948):613. 

15. Seeger, 380 US 165. 

16. Ibid., 166.

17. Selective Service System, Report of the Director of Selective Service to the Congress of the United States Pursuant to the Universal Military Training and Service Act as amended (Washington, D.C.:Government Printing Office, 1965), 40. 

18. "New Form 150," The Reporter for Conscience' Sake25 (October, 1968): 1. 

19. Interview, William Yolton, NISBCO [National Interreligious Service Board for Conscientious Objectors] Director, 12 March 1990, Washington, D.C., tape recording, as cited in Mansavage, "Alternatives to Arms," 26. 

20. Selective Service System, Report, 1967, 15. 

21. Statutes at Large 81 (1967):104. 

22. H.R. Rep. No. 267, 90th Cong., 1st Ses. (1967), reprinted in 1967 U.S.C.C.A.N. 1308, 1334, as quoted in Palmer, "Time to Exorcise," 208.

23. Number of men classified as I-O. Does not included C.O.s who are "at work" (I-W), of which there were 6,367 in 1967 and 8,743 in 1969. Selective Service System, Semi-Annual Report, 1970, no. 2, 46. 

24. Ibid.  

25. Public support for American involvement in Vietnam slid down throughout the war, especially after the early 1968 Tet Offensive. William L. Lunch and Peter W. Sperlich, "American Public Opinion and the War in Vietnam" Western Political Quarterly32 (March 1979):21-44. By law, conscientious objection could only object to all wars, so theoretically, a decline in public opinion should not affect C.O. statistics. But objectors are quite human, and are definitely affected by events. On the other hand, the cancellation of graduate school deferments in early 1968 increased the pool of men eligible for the draft (Flynn, The Draft, 221-3). It is probable that some of these men then applied for conscientious objection status. 

26. Seeger, 380 US 184. 

27. Houston, "Conscientious Objectors," 310. Italics in original. 

28. Ibid.

29. Welsh v. United States, 398 US 335 (1965). 

30. Ibid., 342. 

31. Ibid., 337. 

32. The Court of Appeals mentioned that "[t]he government concedes that [Welsh's] beliefs are held with the strength of more traditional religious convictions." Ibid., 337-8. 

33. Ibid., 333. 

34. Justice Blackmun took no part in the Welshcase. Ibid., 344.

35. Justice Harlan's concurring opinion,Ibid., 345. See also Ibid., 335. 

36. Ibid., 339. 

37. Ibid., 342. 

38. Ibid., 343. 

39. Selective Service System, Report, 1971, no. 1, 39-41.

40. Ibid.

41.Ibid.

42. Curtis Tarr, By the Numbers: The Reform of the Selective Service System 1970-1972 (Washington, DC: National Defense University Press, 1981), 85, and Selective Service System, Report, 1971-1, 39-41.

43. Tarr, By the Numbers, 87 and Selective Service System, Report, 1970, no. 2, 9

44. Beginning in June 1970, the S.S.S. kept detailed monthly statistics on C.O.s. These figures can be found in Selective Service System, Report, 1970, no. 2, 8 and Selective Service System, Report, 1971, no. 1, 58. Unfortunately, these figures cover only one year, making the sample too small to draw any definite conclusions about the impact of the Welsh case.

45. Selective Service System, Report, 1970, no. 2, 8.

46. Justice Douglas, dissenting on No. 85 (Gillette), Gillette v United States, 401 US 463 (1971). 

47. Ibid., 439. 

48. Justice Douglas, dissenting in No. 325 (Negre),Ibid., 473-475. 

49. Ibid.. Members of the armed forces are able to apply for C.O. status under the same standards used by the Selective Service. Department of Defense Directive No. 1300.6 (May 10, 1968), Gillette, 401 US 442, footnote 6. 

50. "Church and Society Paper" Presbyterian Survey59 (June 1969): 24; "Action at Atlanta" The Lutheran6 (July 17, 1968):8; "We Resolve" The Christian(Disciples of Christ) 105 (December 3, 1967):11. The Disciples of Christ first supported selective conscientious objection, then revoked the measure, only to re-instate support later; "Business--'Internal' and 'External'" The Christian106 (November 17, 1968):9; David F. Marshall, "We Have Opened Another Door" United Church Herald10 (August 1967):16.

51. United Presbyterian Church:"The Assembly Views War, Peace, Justice at Home and Abroad" Presbyterian Life 20 (June 15, 1967):42; Episcopal:"What Did We Actually Do?" The Episcopalian132 (November 1967):40; United Methodist:"A Union...and Much More" Together12 (July 1968):5-7, 9-16. 

52. "Houston Church Threatens to Withdraw From Denomination," United Church Herald10 (November 1967):32- 33. 

53. No mention is made of this during the Civil War, but only members of pacifist sects, who opposed all war, qualified for the exemption. 

54. Gillette, 401 US 437-438. 

55. Both petitioners' beliefs qualified as "religious" according to the definition laid out by Seeger and Welsh

56. Gillette, 401 US 437-438. 

57. Ibid., 449.

58. In-service objection still remains, although there is a debate as to its current usefulness. See Palmer, "Time to Exorcise."

¡¡


Introduction ] 1. The Development of Conscientious Objection Through World War I ] 2. World War II and the Origin of Modern Conscientious Objection ] [ 3. Legal History of Conscientious Objection ] 4. Conscientious Objection During the Vietnam War ] 5. The Religious Response to Conscientious Objection ] 6. Conclusion ] Tables and Charts ] Bibliography ]


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