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"By
Reason of Religious Training and Belief..."
A History of
Conscientious
Objection and Religion
during the
Vietnam War
By Karl D. Nelson
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Chapter III:
Legal History of Conscientious Objection
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¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÇ ¹ý·üÀû ¿ª»ç
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United States v. Seeger
Welsh v. United States
Gillette v. United States
Conclusion
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During the Vietnam War, the Supreme Court dealt
with three significant conscientious objector cases. In doing so, the Court initially
enlarged the definition of religion to include conscientious objectors outside of religious
orthodoxy. Eventually, the Court again changed the definition of religion, this time providing for the
exemption of nearly any sincere objector, regardless of the nature of his beliefs. However, the Court
stopped short of exempting objectors to particular wars. This chapter examines the legal history of
conscientious objection, specifically the three crucial Vietnam-era Supreme Court cases, United
States v. Seeger, Welsh v. United States, and Gillette v. United States.
As the previous chapters showed, conscientious
objection was predominately a religious matter. The 1965 United States v. Seeger ruling
allowed objection outside of the religious orthodoxy. Not until the 1970 Welsh v. United States case
could non-religious objectors with philosophical or moral objections to war qualify for conscientious
objection. In both cases, the only legally recognized form of conscientious objection was
total pacifism. There
was, however, a second category. Selective conscientious objectors (S.C.O.s)
objected only
to certain wars, usually on the grounds that a particular war was immoral or
unjust. Although
endorsed by many religious groups, the United States government had never
recognized this
category. In Gillette v. United States(1971), the Supreme Court upheld
the government's position. In each of the cases under consideration the Court
wrestled with the definition of religion. From 1965 to 1970, the specific legal definition of
religion used by the courts and the Selective Service when dealing with conscientious objection
changed from an orthodox view of religion to one where nearly any beliefs, no matter how political
or philosophical, qualified as "religious." By the end of this period, the Court had stretched the
definition of "religion" so wide that in this context the term nearly lost all meaning. |
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ÀüÀïµé¿¡ ´ëÇØ¼ °ÅºÎÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, ÁÖ·Î ±× ÀÌÀ¯´Â ƯÁ¤ÇÑ ÀüÀïÀÌ ºñµµ´öÀûÀ̰ųª ºÎ´çÇϴٱ⠶§¹®À̾ú´Ù. ºñ·Ï ¸¹Àº Á¾±³ ´Üüµé¿¡ ÀÇÇÏ¿© ÁöÁöµÇ¾úÁö¸¸,
¹ÌÇÕÁß±¹ Á¤ºÎ´Â ÀÌ·± ¹üÁÖ¸¦ °áÄÚ ÀÎÁ¤ÇÏÁö ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. Áú·¹Æ® ´ë ¹ÌÇÕÁß±¹ ¼Ò¼Û¿¡¼, ´ë¹ý¿øÀº Á¤ºÎÀÇ ÀÔÀåÀ» ÁöÁöÇÏ¿´´Ù. °è·ù ÁßÀÎ
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»ç¿ëµÈ ±¸Ã¼Àû ¹ý·üÀû Á¤ÀÇ´Â, Á¾±³¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Á¤¼³Àû ½Ã°¢¿¡¼ºÎÅÍ Á¤Ä¡ÀûÀ̵ç öÇÐÀûÀÌµç ¸ðµç ½Å³äµéÀ» "Á¾±³Àû"À̶ó°í ¿©±â´Â °Í±îÁö, ´Ù¾çÇß´Ù. ÀÌ
½Ã±âÀÇ ³¡ ¹«·Æ¿¡, ¹ý¿øÀº "Á¾±³"ÀÇ Á¤ÀǸ¦ ±¤ÀÇÀûÀ¸·Î È®ÀåÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç ÀÌ·± ¹è°æ¿¡¼ ¿ë¾î´Â °ÅÀÇ ¸ðµç Àǹ̸¦ »ó½ÇÇß´Ù. |
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In 1965, the Selective Service still operated under the same conscientious
objection clause that
was passed in 1940. The law provided for those objectors who, "by reason
of religious training and
belief, [were] conscientiously opposed to
participation in war in any form.1
Congress targeted for exemption only those men whose absolute
pacifism was religiously based. Congress clarified its definition of religion in the Selective Service Act
of 1948 by adding the "Supreme Being clause" to the C.O. provision, found in Section 6(j):
Religious training and belief in this connection
means an individual's belief in a relation to a Supreme Being involving duties
superior to those arising from any human relation, but does not include
essentially political, sociological, or philosophical views or a merely personal
moral code.2
Congress periodically renewed the draft legislation
throughout the 1950s and early 1960s with the "Supreme Being clause" intact. By doing
so, Congress followed a centuries-old policy of only exempting religious objectors to all wars. ¡¡ |
1965³â, ´ëüº¹¹«´Â ¾ÆÁ÷ 1940³â¿¡ Åë°úµÈ °Í°ú ¶È°°Àº ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ Á¶Ç× ¾Æ·¡¼ ¿î¿µµÇ°í ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ÀÌ ¹ý·üÀº "Á¾±³Àû °¡¸£Ä§ ¹×
½Å³äÀ» ÀÌÀ¯·Î ¾î¶°ÇÑ ÇüÅÂÀÇ ÀüÀï¿¡µµ" Âü¿©ÇÔ¿¡ ¾ç½ÉÀûÀ¸·Î °ÅºÎÇÏ´Â °ÅºÎÀڵ鿡 ´ëÇÏ¿© ±ÔÁ¤ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ÀÇȸ´Â Á¾±³¸¦ ±â¹ÝÀ¸·Î ÇÏ´Â
Àý´ëÀû ÆòÈÁÖÀǸ¦ ¿ËÈ£ÇÏ´Â »ç¶÷µé¿¡°Ô¸¸ ¿ÀÁ÷ ¸éÁ¦¸¦ ÀǵµÇÏ¿´´Ù. ÀÇȸ´Â 1948³â ´ëüº¹¹«¹ý¿¡¼ "Àý´ëÀû Á¸Àç Á¶Ç×"À» CO Á¶Ç׿¡ ºÎ°¡ÇÔÀ¸·Î½á
Á¾±³ÀÇ Á¤ÀǸ¦ ¸íÈ®È÷ ÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, ÀÌ´Â 6Á¶jÇ׿¡ ´ÙÀ½°ú °°ÀÌ ³ªÅ¸³ª ÀÖ´Ù: ÀÌ¿Í °ü·ÃÇÏ¿© Á¾±³Àû °¡¸£Ä§ ¹× ½Å³äÀº ¾î¶² Àΰ£Àû °ü°è¿¡¼ ºñ·ÔµÇ´Â
Àǹ«µé º¸´Ùµµ ¿ì¼±ÇÔÀ» Æ÷ÇÔÇÏ´Â Àý´ëÀû Á¸Àç¿ÍÀÇ °ü°è¿¡ µû¸¥ °³ÀÎÀÇ ½Å³äÀ» ÀǹÌÇϸç, ÀÌ´Â ±Ùº»ÀûÀ¸·Î Á¤Ä¡Àû, »çȸÀû, ¶Ç´Â öÇÐÀû ½Ã°¢µéÀ̳ª
´Ü¼øÈ÷ °³ÀÎÀÇ µµ´öÀû À²¹ýÀ» Æ÷ÇÔÇÏÁö ¾Ê´Â´Ù. ÀÇȸ´Â "Àý´ëÀû Á¸Àç Á¶Ç×"À» °Çµå¸®Áö ¾ÊÀº ä, 1950³â´ë ¹× 1960³â´ë Ãʱ⿡ ÁÙ°ð
ÁÖ±âÀûÀ¸·Î ¡º´¹ýÀ» °»½ÅÇØ¿Ô´Ù. ±×·¸°Ô ÇÔÀ¸·Î½á, ÀÇȸ´Â ¸ðµç ÀüÀïµé¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Á¾±³Àû °ÅºÎÀڵ鸸À» ¿ÀÁ÷ ¸éÁ¦ÇÔÀ¸·Î½á 1¼¼±â°¡ ³ÑÀº Á¤Ã¥À»
µû¶ó¿Ô´Ù. |
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In November 1964, two months after Congress
sanctioned the escalation of the Vietnam conflict with the Tonkin Gulf Resolution, a case
came before the Supreme Court that would affect the nature of conscientious objection for the
duration of the war. When the Court handed down the United States v. Seeger decision
on March 8, 1965, it substantially broadened the meaning of religious objection to war.
Daniel Seeger came from a Catholic family in New
York. He held a student deferment from 1955 to 1958. While still a student, Seeger applied
for conscientious objector status. The draft board denied Seeger's application, and subsequent
appeals were also turned down. Seeger was eventually convicted for refusing to be inducted
into the armed forces.3
Working with the Central Committee for Conscientious Objectors, a C.O.
advocacy organization, Seeger and his lawyers brought this case before the Supreme
Court.4
Because of similarities in the cases, the Court
decided the Seeger case together with two other challenges to the C.O.
provision, United States v. Jakobson and
Peter v. United States. Despite
Seeger's Catholic upbringing, the beliefs he conveyed when filling out his
Selective Service
System forms did not fall within the religious mainstream of the day. Seeger
claimed his "religion"
was a "belief in and devotion to goodness and virtue for their own sakes,
and a religious faith
in a purely ethical creed."5
When asked about a Supreme Being, Seeger responded,
"Of course,
the existence of God cannot be proven or disproven, and the essence of his
nature cannot be
determined."6
Seeger qualified this by stating that his
skepticism did "not necessarily mean lack of faith in anything whatsoever."7
Jakobson, also of New York, requested a
non-combatant conscientious objector classification (I-A-O) in 1958. Later that year he
made a request for I-O classification. Jakobson spoke of a "Godness" which was "the
Ultimate Cause for the fact of the Being of the Universe."8
Like Seeger, Jakobson was convicted of failing to
report for induction. He appealed on the grounds that he did indeed believe in a Supreme Being. A
Court of Appeals reversed the decision because the Selective Service Appeal Board did not indicate
if Jakobson's appeal had been granted on the grounds that he failed to qualify under the Supreme
Being clause or that he was insincere.9
Forest Peter,
of California, also refused to be inducted. He was not a member of a religious
organization, but
when asked about his beliefs, he responded, "you could call that a belief
in the Supreme Being or
God. These just do not happen to be the words I use."10
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1964³â 11¿ù, ÀÇȸ°¡ ÅëÅ·¸¸ Àǰá·Î º£Æ®³² ÀüÀÇ È®´ë¸¦ ºñÁØÇÑ 2 °³¿ù µÚ¿¡, ´ë¹ý¿ø¿¡´Â ÀüÀïÀÇ Áö¼Ó¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÇ ¼º°Ý¿¡ ¿µÇâÀ»
¹ÌÄ¡´Â ¼Ò¼ÛÀÌ Á¦±âµÇ¾ú´Ù. 1965³â 3¿ù 8ÀÏ, ¹ýÁ¤ÀÌ ¹ÌÇÕÁß±¹ ´ë ½Ã°Å¿¡ °áÁ¤À» ³»·ÈÀ» ¶§, ¹ýÁ¤Àº »ç½Ç»ó ÀüÀï¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Á¾±³Àû
°ÅºÎÀÇ Àǹ̸¦ È®´ëÇÏ¿´´Ù.
Daniel Seeger´Â ´º¿åÀÇ Ä«Å縯 °¡¹® Ãâ½ÅÀ̾ú´Ù. ±×´Â 1955³âºÎ³Ê 1958³â±îÁö Çлý À¯¿¹¸¦ ÁÖÀåÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¾ÆÁ÷ ÇлýÀ¸·Î¼ Seeger´Â
¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚ µî±ÞÀ» ½ÅûÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¡º´ À§¿øÈ¸´Â ½Ã°ÅÀÇ ½ÅûÀ» °ÅºÎÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, ÀÌ¿¡ µû¸¥ ÀÌÀÇ ¿ª½Ã ºÎ°áµÇ¾ú´Ù. Seeger´Â °á±¹ À°±º¿¡
¡ÁýµÊÀ» °ÅºÎÇÔ¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿© ±â¼ÒµÇ¾ú´Ù. CO ¿ËÈ£ ´ÜüÀÎ [¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚ¸¦ À§ÇÑ Áß¾Ó À§¿øÈ¸]¿Í ÇÔ²² ÁغñÇÑ ³¡¿¡, Seeger¿Í ±×ÀÇ º¯È£»çµéÀº
ÀÌ ¼Ò¼ÛÀ» ´ë¹ý¿ø¿¡ °¡Á®°¬´Ù. ¼Ò¼ÛµéÀÇ À¯»ç¼º ¶§¹®¿¡, ¹ýÁ¤Àº Seeger°ÇÀ» CO Á¶Ç׿¡ ´ëÇÑ ´Ù¸¥ µÎ°¡Áö Ç×¼Ò, ¹ÌÇÕÁß±¹´ë ¾ßÄß½¼
¹× ÇÇÅÍ ´ë ¹ÌÇÕÁß±¹°ú, ÇÔ²² ¹±â·Î ÇÏ¿´´Ù. SeegerÀÇ Ä«Å縯 ¾çÀ°¿¡µµ ºÒ±¸ÇÏ°í ´ëüº¹¹«Á¦µµ ¼½Ä¿¡
±â·ÏÇÏ¿´À» ¶§ÀÇ ±×°¡ °¡Áö°í ÀÖ´ø ½Å³äµéÀº ±× ½Ã´ëÀÇ Á¾±³Àû ÁÖ·ù¿¡ ¼ÓÇÏÁö ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. Seeger´Â ±×ÀÇ "Á¾±³"°¡ "¼±°ú ´ö ÀÚü¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¹ÏÀ½°ú
Çå½ÅÀ̸ç, ¼ø¼öÇÏ°Ô À±¸®Àû ½ÅÁ¶¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Á¾±³Àû ½Å¾ÓÀÌ´Ù"°í ÁÖÀåÇÏ¿´´Ù. Àý´ëÀû Á¸Àç¿¡ ´ëÇØ ¹¯ÀÚ, Seeger´Â, "¹°·Ð Çϳª´ÔÀÇ Á¸Àç´Â Áõ¸íµÉ
¼öµµ ¾øÀ¸¸ç ¹ÝÁõµÉ ¼öµµ ¾øÀ¸¸ç ±×ÀÇ º»¼ºÀº °áÁ¤µÉ ¼ö ¾ø´Ù"°í ´ë´äÇÏ¿´´Ù. Seeger´Â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ È¸ÀÇÁÖÀǰ¡ "¹«¾ùÀ̵çÁö¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ½Å¾ÓÀ»
°á¿©ÇÑ´Ù´Â °ÍÀ» ¹Ýµå½Ã ÀǹÌÇÏ´Â °ÍÀº ¾Æ´Ï´Ù"¶ó°í Áø¼úÇÏ¸é¼ ÀÌ¿¡ µ¡ºÙ¿´´Ù. ¶ÇÇÑ ´º¿å Ãâ½ÅÀÎ
JakobsonÀº 1958³â ºñÀüÅõÀû ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚ ºÐ·ù(I-A-O)¸¦ ¿ä±¸ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±× ÇØÀÇ µÚ¿¡ ±×´Â I-O ºÐ·ù¸¦ ½ÅûÇÏ¿´´Ù.
JakobsonÀº "¿ìÁÖÀÇ Á¸ÀçÀÇ »ç½Ç¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ±Ã±ØÀû ¿øÀÎ"ÀÎ "¼±"À» ÁÖÀåÇÏ¿´´Ù. Seegeró·³,
JakobsonÀº ¡º´ ½Å°í¸¦ ±âÇÇÇÔÀ¸·Î ±â¼ÒµÇ¾ú´Ù. ±×´Â ±×°¡ »ç½Ç Àý´ëÀû Á¸À縦 ¹Ï°í ÀÖÀ½À» ±Ù°Å·Î Ç×¼ÒÇÏ¿´´Ù. Ç×¼Ò ¹ýÁ¤Àº °áÁ¤À»
¹øº¹ÇÏ¿´´Âµ¥, ´ëüº¹¹« Ç×¼ÒÀ§¿øÈ¸¿¡¼
JakobsonÀÇ Ç×¼Ò°¡ ±×°¡ Àý´ëÀû Á¸Àç Á¶Ç׿¡ ÀڰݾøÀ½À̳ª ±×°¡ ºÒ¼º½ÇÇÔÀ» ÀÌÀ¯·Î 󸮵Ǿú´ÂÁö¸¦ °¡¸®Å°Áö ¾Ê¾Ò±â ¶§¹®À̾ú´Ù. ͏®Æ÷´Ï¾Æ
Ãâ½ÅÀÇ Forest Peter´Â ¿ª½Ã ¸ðº´À» °ÅºÎÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×´Â Á¾±³Àû ´ÜüÀÇ ±¸¼º¿øÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï¾úÀ¸³ª, ±×ÀÇ ½Å³ä¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿© ¹°¾úÀ» ¶§, "´ç½ÅµéÀº
±×°ÍÀ» Àý´ëÀû Á¸Àç ¶Ç´Â Çϳª´Ô¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¹ÏÀ½À̶ó°í ÀÏÄÃÀ» ¼ö°¡ ÀÖ´Ù. À̰͵éÀº ´ÜÁö ³»°¡ »ç¿ëÇÏ´Â ´Ü¾îµéÀÌ ¾Æ´Ò »ÓÀÌ´Ù"¶ó°í ´ë´äÇÏ¿´´Ù. |
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In each of the three cases, the petitioners held beliefs that were outside of
the religious orthodoxy.
The Court made a point of the fact that none of the men were atheists.11
But each of the men did have a belief in some sort of a Supreme
Being, and each was sincere in his beliefs. Seeger and his lawyers attacked the draft law on
constitutional grounds. They argued that Section 6(j) violated the Establishment and Free
Exercise Clauses of the First Amendment by not providing for non-religious
objectors.12
They also contended that the law violated the Due
Process Clause
of the Fifth Amendment by discriminating between theistic and nontheistic
religions.13
The Court
avoided this question by declining to rule on the constitutionality of the
statute. Rather, the unanimous
Court broadened the definition of religion. The Seeger case rested on the wording of the
draft law. The law defined religious training and belief as an "individual's belief in a
relation to a Supreme Being involving duties superior to those arising from any human relation."14
Seeger, Jakobson, and Peter had all been denied
their objection because
their beliefs did not fit in the traditional definition of a Supreme Being. So
the Court re- wrote
the definition, having concluded that Congress used the term "Supreme
Being" (rather than "God")
"so as to embrace all religions and to exclude essentially political,
sociological, or philosophical
views."15
To qualify for a religious exemption, the
petitioner needed to hold beliefs that
occupied a place "parallel to that filled by the orthodox belief in
God."16
Any sincere belief, including those of Seeger, Jakobson, and Peter,
qualified, even if the petitioners themselves would not classify themselves as "religious,"
so long as the beliefs were not political, sociological, or philosophical. ¡¡
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°¢±â ¼¼°¡Áö ¼Ò¼Ûµé¿¡¼, û¿øÀÚµéÀº Á¾±³Àû Á¤ÅëÀ» ¹þ¾î³ ½Å³äµéÀ» °¡Áö°í ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ¹ýÁ¤Àº ±×µé Áß ¾Æ¹«µµ ¹«½Å·ÐÀÚ°¡ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó´Â »ç½Ç¿¡ ÁÖ¸ñÇÏ¿´´Ù.
±×·¯³ª ±× »ç¶÷µé Á¦°¢±â´Â ÀÏÁ¾ÀÇ Àý´ëÀû Á¸Àç¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¹ÏÀ½À» °¡Áö°í ÀÖ¾úÀ¸¸ç, °¢ÀÚ´Â ±×µéÀÇ ¹ÏÀ½¿¡¼ Áø½ÇÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×µéÀº ºñÁ¾±³Àû °ÅºÎÀڵ鿡
´ëÇØ ±ÔÁ¤ÇÏÁö ¾ÊÀ½À¸·Î¼ Á¦6Á¶jÇ×ÀÌ Çå¹ý Á¦ÀÏ ¼öÁ¤ Á¶Ç×ÀÇ ¼³¸³ ¹× ÀÚÀ¯·Î¿î Çà»ç¸¦ Ä§ÇØÇÏ¿´´Ù°í ÁÖÀåÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×µéÀº ¹ý·üÀÌ À¯½Å·Ð ¹×
¹«½Å·ÐÀûÀÎ Á¾±³µé »çÀÌ¿¡ Â÷º°À» µÒÀ¸·Î¼ Çå¹ý Á¦5¼öÁ¤ Á¶Ç×ÀÇ Àǹ«Àû ÀýÂ÷¸¦ ħ¹üÇÏ¿´´Ù°í °º¯ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¹ýÁ¤Àº ¹ý·ÉÀÇ ÇÕÇ强¿¡ ´ëÇØ °áÁ¤À»
³»¸®±â¸¦ °ÅºÎÇÔÀ¸·Î½á ÀÌ ¹®Á¦¸¦ ȸÇÇÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¿ÀÈ÷·Á, ¹ýÁ¤Àº ¸¸Àå ÀÏÄ¡·Î Á¾±³ÀÇ Á¤ÀǸ¦ ³ÐÇû´Ù. Seeger ¼Ò¼ÛÀº
¡º´¹ýÀÇ Ç¥Çö¿¡ ´Þ·Á ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ¹ý·üÀº Á¾±³Àû °¡¸£Ä§ ¹× ¹ÏÀ½À» "¾î¶² Àΰ£Àû °ü·Ê¿¡¼ ¹ß»ýÇÏ´Â °Íµé¿¡ ¿ì¼±ÇÏ´Â Àǹ«µéÀ» Æ÷ÇÔÇÏ´Â Àý´ëÀû Á¸Àç¿Í
°ü·ÃµÈ °³ÀÎÀÇ ¹ÏÀ½"À¸·Î Á¤ÀÇÇÏ¿´´Ù.
Seeger, Jakobson, ¹× Peter´Â ¸ðµÎ ±×µéÀÇ °ÅºÎ¸¦ ÀÎÁ¤¹ÞÁö ¸øÇß´Ù ¿Ö³ÄÇϸé
±×µéÀÇ ¹ÏÀ½µéÀº Àý´ëÀû Á¸Àç¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÀüÅëÀû Á¤ÀÇ¿¡ ÀûÇÕÇÏÁö ¾Ê¾Ò±â ¶§¹®À̾ú´Ù. ±×·¡¼ ¹ýÁ¤Àº Á¤ÀǸ¦ ´Ù½Ã ±â·ÏÇϸé¼, ÀÇȸ´Â ("Çϳª´Ô"À̶ó±â
º¸´Ù´Â)"Àý´ëÀû Á¸Àç"¸¦ "¸ðµç Á¾±³¸¦ Æ÷ÇÔÇÏ¸ç º»ÁúÀûÀ¸·Î Á¤Ä¡Àû, »çȸÇÐÀû, ¶Ç´Â öÇÐÀû ½Ã°¢À» ¹èÁ¦ÇÏ´Â" °ÍÀ¸·Î »ç¿ëÇÑ °ÍÀ̶ó°í °á·ÐÀ»
³»·È´Ù. Á¾±³Àû ¸éÁ¦¿¡ ÇÕ´çÇÏ·Á¸é û¿øÀÚ´Â "Çϳª´Ô¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Á¤ÅëÀû ¹ÏÀ½¿¡ ÀÇÇÏ¿© ä¿öÁö´Â °Í¿¡ ÆòÇàÇÏ´Â" À§Ä¡¸¦ Â÷ÁöÇÏ´Â ¹ÏÀ½µéÀ» Áö´Ò °ÍÀÌ
¿ä±¸µÈ´Ù. ¾î¶² Áø½ÇÇÑ ¹ÏÀ½À̶óµµ,
Seeger, Jakobson, ¹× Peter¸¦ Æ÷ÇÔÇÏ¿©, ½ÉÁö¾î û¿øÀÚµéÀÌ ½º½º·Î¸¦ "Á¾±³Àû"À̶ó°í ºÐ·ùÇÏÁö ¾Ê´õ¶óµµ, ±× ¹ÏÀ½µéÀÌ Á¤Ä¡Àû,
»çȸÇÐÀû ¶Ç´Â öÇÐÀûÀÎ °ÍÀÌ ¾Æ´Ñ ÇÑ, ÇÕ´çÇÏ´Ù°í ¿©°ÜÁø´Ù. |
|
The Selective Service responded to the Seeger decision with a brief
note in its annual report to
Congress for 1965, noting that the Court had "laid down a test for
determining whether registrants
who claim to be conscientious objectors meet the definition prescribed by
Congress."17
The S.S.S. did not adapt its forms or materials to
the Seeger case until August 30, 1968, over three years after Seeger was handed down, and over
a year after Congress revised the C.O. provision.18
Throughout this period, applicants could use the Seeger
case if they knew about it.19
Although the Selective Service apparently waited until Congress
had acted on the Supreme Court ruling, the reason for the additional year delay is not known.
When Congress renewed the draft on June 30, 1967,
lawmakers incorporated Seeger into Section 6(j). Congress deleted any reference to a
"Supreme Being," requiring only that the objector oppose all war "by reason of religious
training and belief." The Selective Service reacted to this by revoking its definition of "religious training
and belief" in accordance with the law.20
Still explicitly exempted from conscientious objection were those
who held "essentially political, sociological, or philosophical views, or a merely personal moral
code."21
In Congressional hearings, Gen. Lewis Hershey, the long-time director of the Selective
Service, testified that the revised law "could very easily result in a substantial increase in the
number of unjustified appeals for exemption."22
Difficulties arise when attempting to assess the
impact of the Seeger decision in the Selective Service figures. As noted above, Seeger was
not turned into law until 1967 and not incorporated into S.S.S. policy until 1968.
Beginning in 1967, the number of men classified as C.O.s increased from 11,041 to 15,855 in
1969.23
However, the Seeger case cannot take all the
credit for this increase. Nearly 350,000 men were drafted in
1966, compared to just over 100,000 during
the previous year.24
Inductions stayed high until President Nixon
reduced draft calls with his
"Vietnamization" policies. These high induction figures likely account
for some of the increase in
conscientious objection. As inductions fell sharply, conscientious objector
classifications rose. In
other words, even though the chances of being drafted were falling, men were
increasingly interested
in conscientious objection. Other factors, including the growing unpopularity
with the war
and the phasing out of some deferments, may also have contributed to the
increase in conscientious objection.25
The Supreme Court hoped its new C.O. test would be
"less onerous" than earlier tests.26
However, some lower courts dealing with
conscientious objection cases were unsatisfied with Seeger. One
court complained that it was "forced" to grant a C.O.
classification in a case where the defendant's
beliefs were ambiguous.27
Another court stated that "[a]ny series of
ideas which a person
seriously holds or a philosophy of life which a person seeks to adhere to,
should be granted the
respected classification of religious conviction."28
As the Vietnam War became an increasingly divisive
issue in American society, the problems
with the Seeger ruling prompted the Court to take another look at
conscientious objection. ¡¡ ¡¡ |
´ëü º¹¹«´Â
Seeger ÆÇ°á¿¡ ´ëÇØ 1965³â ÀÇȸ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¿¬·Ê º¸°í¿¡¼ °£·«ÇÑ Å뺸·Î ´ëÀÀÇϸé¼,
´ë¹ý¿øÀÌ "¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀ̶ó°í ÁÖÀåÇÏ´Â µî·ÏÀÚµéÀÌ ÀÇȸ°¡ ±ÔÁ¤ÇÑ Á¤ÀÇ¿¡ ÀûÇÕÇÑÁö¸¦ °áÁ¤ÇÔ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÆÇ°áÀ» ³»¾î ³õ¾Ò´Ù"°í ¾ð±ÞÇÏ¿´´Ù. Seeger
¼Ò¼ÛÀÇ ÆÇ°áÀÌ ³»·ÁÁø ÈÄ »ï ³â µÚ, ±×¸®°í ÀÇȰ¡ COÁ¶Ç×À» °³Á¤ÇÑ ÈÄ Àϳ⠵ÚÀÎ, 1968³â 8¿ù 30ÀϱîÁö SSS´Â ±×
¼½ÄµéÀ̳ª ÀÚ·áµéÀ» ¼öÁ¤ÇÏÁö ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. ÀÌ ±â°£ ³»³», ½ÅûÀÚµéÀº ¸¸ÀÏ ±×°ÍÀ» ¾Ë°í ÀÖ¾ú´Ù¸é, Seeger °ÇÀ» »ç¿ëÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ºñ·Ï
´ëüº¹¹«°¡ ¸í¹éÈ÷ ÀÇȸ°¡ ´ë¹ý¿øÀÇ ÆÇ°á¿¡ µû¶ó Á¶Ã³ÇÒ ¶§±îÁö ¸í¹éÈ÷ ±â´Ù¸®°í ÀÖ¾úÁö¸¸, Ãß°¡ÀûÀÎ ÀÏ ³âÀÇ Áö¿¬¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÀÌÀ¯´Â ¾Ë·ÁÁ® ÀÖÁö ¾Ê´Ù.
1967³â 6¿ù 30ÀÏ ÀÇȸ°¡ ¡º´À» ºÎȰÇÏ¿´À» ¶§, ¹ý·ü°¡µéÀº Seeger ÆÇ·Ê¸¦ Á¦6Á¶jÇ׿¡ º´ÇÕ½ÃÄ×´Ù. ÀÇȸ´Â "Àý´ëÀû Á¸Àç"¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¸ðµç
ÂüÁ¶¸¦ »èÁ¦Çϰí, °ÅºÎÀÚ°¡ ¸ðµç ÀüÀïÀ» "Á¾±³Àû °¡¸£Ä§ ¹× ¹ÏÀ½"À» ÀÌÀ¯·Î ¹Ý´ëÇÑ´Ù´Â °Í¸¸À» Àǹ«·ÎÇÏ¿´´Ù. ´ëüº¹¹«´Â ¹ý·ü¿¡ ÀǰÅÇÏ¿© ÀÚüÀÇ
"Á¾±³Àû °¡¸£Ä§ ¹× ¹ÏÀ½"ÀÇ Á¤ÀǸ¦ Ãë¼ÒÇÔÀ¸·Î½á ¿©±â¿¡ ¹ÝÀÀÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¾ÆÁ÷µµ °ø°ø¿¬È÷ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¿¡¼ Á¦¿ÜµÈ »ç¶÷µéÀº "±Ùº»ÀûÀ¸·Î Á¤Ä¡Àû,
»çȸÇлó ¶Ç´Â öÇÐÀû ½Ã°¢ ¶Ç´Â ´Ü¼øÈ÷ °³ÀÎÀû µµ´ö·üÀ» °ßÁöÇÏ´Â" »ç¶÷µéÀÌ´Ù. ÀÇȸÀÇ Ã»¹®È¸¿¡¼, ´ëüº¹¹«ÀÇ ¿À·£ ±¹ÀåÀÎ Lewis
Hershey À屺Àº, °³Á¤µÈ ¹ý·üÀº "¸Å¿ì ½±»ç¸® ¸éÁ¦¸¦ À§ÇÑ Á¤´çÇÏÁö ¸øÇÑ Ç×¼ÒÀÇ ¼ýÀÚÀÇ »ó´çÇÑ Áõ°¡¸¦ ÃÊ·¡ÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù°í" Áõ¾ðÇÏ¿´´Ù.
´ëüº¹¹« ¼öÄ¡¿¡¼ Seeger ÆÇ°áÀÇ ¿µÇâÀ» Æò°¡ÇÏ·ÁÇÒ ¶§ ¹®Á¦µéÀÌ ¹ß»ýÇÑ´Ù. À§¿¡¼ ¾ð±ÞÇÏ¿´µíÀÌ, SeegerÆÇ°áÀº
1967 ³â±îÁö ¹ý·ü·Î ÀüȯµÇÁö ¾Ê¾ÒÀ¸¸ç 1968 ³â±îÁö SSSÀÇ Á¤Ã¥À¸·Î º´ÇÕµÇÁö ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. 1967 ³â¿¡ ½ÃÀÛÇÏ¿©, 1969³â¿¡´Â CO·Î
ºÐ·ùµÈ »ç¶÷µéÀÇ ¼ýÀÚ°¡ 11,041 ¸í¿¡¼ 15,585 ¸íÀ¸·Î Áõ°¡ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×·¯³ª, Seeger ÆÇ°áÀÌ ÀÌ·¯ÇÑ Áõ°¡¿¡
´ëÇÑ ¸ðµç ¿øÀÎÀ̶ó°í ÇÒ ¼ö ¾ø´Ù. °ÅÀÇ 350,000¸íÀÇ »ç¶÷µéÀÌ 1966³â¿¡ ¡º´µÇ¾úÀ¸¸ç, Àü ³â¿¡ ºñÇÏ¿© 100,000¸íÀÌ ¸¹Àº ¼öÄ¡ÀÌ´Ù.
´Ð½¼ ´ëÅë·ÉÀÇ "º£Æ®³²È" Á¤Ã¥µé·Î¼ ¡º´ ¼ÒÁýÀ» ÁÙÀÏ ¶§±îÁö ¸ðº´ ¼öÄ¡´Â ³ô¾Ò´Ù. ÀÌ·± ³ôÀº ¸ðº´ ¼öÄ¡´Â ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÀϺΠÁõ°¡¸¦
¼³¸íÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù.¸ðº´ÀÌ ¶Ò ¶³¾îÁú ¶§¿¡, ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚ ºÐ·ù´Â ³ô¾ÆÁ³´Ù. ´Ù½Ã ¸»ÇÏÀÚ¸é, ¡º´µÉ °¡´É¼ºÀÌ ¶³¾îÁö°í ÀÖ´õ¶óµµ, »ç¶÷µéÀº Á¡Á¡
¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¿¡ °ü½ÉÀ» °¡Á³´Ù. ´Ù¸¥ ¿äÀεéÀÌ ¶ÇÇÑ, ÀüÀï¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Á¡ÁøÀûÀÎ ºñÀα⵵¿Í ÀϺΠÀ¯¿¹µé¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÆóÁö¸¦ Æ÷ÇÔÇÏ¿©, ¶ÇÇÑ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÇ
Áõ°¡¿¡ ±â¿©ÇßÀ» °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ´ë¹ý¿øÀº »õ·ÎÀº CO¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÆÇ°áÀÌ ÀÌÀüÀÇ ÆÇ°áº¸´Ùµµ "ÁüÀÌ ´ú µÇ±â¸¦" Èñ¸ÁÇß´Ù. ±×·¯³ª ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¸¦ ´Ù·ç´Â ÀϺÎ
ÇÏ±Þ ¹ý¿øµéÀº Seeger ÆÇ°á¿¡ ºÒ¸¸À̾ú´Ù. ÇÑ ¹ýÁ¤Àº ÇǰíÀÇ ½Å³äµéÀÌ ¸ðÈ£ÇÑ °æ¿ì¿¡µµ CO ºÐ·ù¸¦ ÀÎÁ¤Çؾ߸¸ ÇÑ´Ù¸ç ÀÌÀǸ¦
Á¦±âÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¾î¶² ¹ýÁ¤Àº "°³ÀÎÀÌ ÁøÁöÇÏ°Ô ÁÖÀåÇÏ´Â ÀÏ·ÃÀÇ »ç»óµé ¶Ç´Â °³ÀÎÀÌ °í¼öÇϰíÀÚ ÇÏ´Â »îÀÇ Ã¶ÇÐÀº Á¾±³Àû ½Å³äÀ¸·Î¼ »óÀÀÇÏ´Â ºÐ·ù°¡
ÀÎÁ¤µÇ¾î¾ß¸¸ ÇÑ´Ù"°í ¼±¾ðÇÏ¿´´Ù. º£Æ®³² ÀüÀïÀÌ ¹Ì±¹ »çȸ¿¡¼ Á¡Â÷ÀûÀ¸·Î ºÐ¿ÀûÀÎ ¹®Á¦·Î µÇ¾î°¡ÀÚ, Seeger ÆÇ°á¿¡ °ü·ÃµÈ
¹®Á¦µéÀº ¹ýÁ¤À¸·Î ÇÏ¿©±Ý ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ´Ù¸¥ ½Ã°¢À» °¡Áöµµ·Ï ÀçÃËÇÏ¿´´Ù. |
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À£½¬ ´ë ¹ÌÇÕÁß±¹
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The
Supreme Court again took up the issue of conscientious objection in 1970 in Welsh
v. United
States. This case, the Court noted, was
"strikingly similar" to the Seeger case.29
The petitioner,
Elliott Welsh, was raised in a religious home, but like Seeger, had moved away
from mainstream
religion by the time he applied for conscientious objector status. He had moved
so far, in
fact, that Welsh did not consider his beliefs to fall within the definition of
"religion," and he was quite
emphatic on that point.30
When filling out the Selective Service form for
conscientious objectors,
Welsh crossed out the phrase "by reason of my religious training and belief."31
The statement he signed read:"I am,
conscientiously opposed to participation in war in any form." As with Seeger, there was little question as to the
sincerity of Welsh's beliefs.32
But to his draft board, and to later appeal boards and courts, Welsh's
beliefs clearly fit into the "political, sociological, or philosophical views, or a merely personal moral
code" category that explicitly fell outside the Congressional definition of conscientious
objection. Welsh
and his lawyers claimed that the conviction should be dismissed due to the
broadened definition
of religion from Seeger.33
They also attacked Section 6(j) on grounds of
constitutionality, much
like Seeger had. As with Seeger, the Court again chose to skirt around
the issue of constitutionality.
And as before, the Court found it necessary to broaden the meaning of
"religion." Whereas
Seeger was a unanimous decision, the Welsh case was decidedly less
conclusive. Four
justices, led by Justice Black, voted to broaden the definition of religion.
Three justices dissented.34
Justice Harlan tipped the scale to Welsh's favor.
He voted to overturn the conviction
to "salvag[e] a congressional policy of long standing that would
otherwise have to be nullified," not to broaden the definition of "religious."35
The Court looked back to the Seeger case
where it had stated that it was important to determine if a registrant's beliefs were sincere
and "in his own scheme of things, religious."36
With Welsh, the Court decided to broaden the
definition even further, writing: We
certainly do not think that [Section] 6(j)'s exclusion of those persons with
"essentially political, sociological, or philosophical views or a merely
personal moral code" should be read to exclude those who hold strong
beliefs about our domestic and foreign affairs or even those whose conscientious
objection to participation in all wars is founded to a substantial extent upon
considerations of public policy.37
But With
this logic, even political beliefs were considered religious if they were held
deeply and sincerely enough
by the registrant. The Court then used a semantic sleight-of-hand to work around
the exemptions
in the law. It claimed that if a man's beliefs fell under the new broad
definition of religion
then they could not logically be considered "essentially political,
sociological, or philosophical."38
Soon after the Welsh ruling, the Selective
Service, now led by Curtiss Tarr, updated its conscientious objection policy. Local Board
Memorandum No. 107, released on July 6, 1970, incorporated the Welsh decision into S.S.S.
policy. The S.S.S. reiterated the fact that a man must object to all wars, not just one specific war. The
primary test was now to be a man's sincerity, not the nature or origin of his beliefs. The
registrant's beliefs "must be the primary controlling force in the man's life."39
Tarr spent a good deal of time in the memorandum
making sure the boards understood
that the registrant's beliefs need not be traditional, and that a board could
not dismiss a registrant's
claim based on the incomprehensibility of his beliefs.40
A board could reject a claim only if the man was insincere or if his objection
"rests solely upon consideration of policy,
pragmatism, or expediency."41
Even though nearly any religious exemption was now
allowed, mainstream
religion was still the yardstick. The S.S.S. added a requirement that
"[t]he registrant must
demonstrate that his ethical or moral convictions were gained through training,
study, contemplation,
or other activity, comparable in rigor and dedication to the processes by which religious convictions are formulated."42
Tarr indicated that the Seeger-Welsh test
worked, but in his report
to Congress at the end of 1970, he mentioned that more training was needed for
the local boards
on this issue.43
Looking at Selective Service statistics, there was
a substantial jump in the number of men classified I-O, from 15,855 in 1969 to 28,188 in
1970. The numbers were even higher in 1971 (36,713), but dropped off significantly in 1972 and
1973 as the draft wound down. It is difficult to determine how much the Welsh decision
affected these numbers. Obviously, Welsh only affected the 1970 statistics from mid-June on, and as the
monthly figures show, the rest of the year remained constant.44
Tarr mentions that he did not believe Welsh caused
more C.O. applications, but
that it probably has "influenced local boards to classify more of those who
do apply into I-O."45 ¡¡ |
´ë¹ý¿øÀº ´Ù½Ã 1970³â À£½¬ ´ë ¹ÌÇÕÁß±¹ ¼Ò¼Û¿¡¼ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ ¹®Á¦¸¦ ¸Ã¾Ò´Ù. ÀÌ ¼Ò¼ÛÀº, ¹ýÁ¤ÀÌ ¾ð±ÞÇÏ´Â ¹Ù,
Seeger ¼Ò¼Û°ú "ÇöÀúÇÏ°Ô À¯»çÇß´Ù". û¿øÀÚ Elliott
Welsh Á¾±³Àû °¡Á¤¿¡¼ ¾çÀ°µÇ¾úÀ¸³ª, Seegeró·³, ±×°¡ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ µî±Þ¿¡ ½ÅûÇÒ ¹«·Æ¿¡´Â ÁÖ·ù Á¾±³·ÎºÎÅÍ ¸Ö¾îÁ® ÀÖ¾ú´Ù.
±×´Â ³Ê¹«³ª ¸Ö¾îÁ® ÀÖ¾úÀ¸¹Ç·Î, »ç½Ç»ó, Welsh´Â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ½Å³äµéÀÌ "Á¾±³"ÀÇ Á¤ÀÇ ¾È¿¡ ¼ÓÇÑ´Ù°í »ý°¢ÇÏÁö ¾Ê¾ÒÀ¸¸ç, ±×´Â ±× Á¡À» °Á¶Çϰí
ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀ» À§ÇÑ ´ëüº¹¹« ¼½ÄÀ» ÀÛ¼ºÇÒ ¶§¿¡, Welsh´Â "³ªÀÇ Á¾±³Àû ÈÆ·Ã ¹× ¹ÏÀ½À» ÀÌÀ¯·Î"¶ó´Â ±¸ÀýÀ» ±×¾î ¹ö·È´Ù. ±×°¡
¼¸íÇÑ Áø¼úÀº ´ÙÀ½°ú °°´Ù: "³ª´Â, ¾î¶² ÇüÅÂÀÇ ÀüÀï¿¡µµ Âü¿©ÇÔÀ» ¾ç½ÉÀûÀ¸·Î °ÅºÎÇÑ´Ù." Seeger¿Í ¸¶Âù°¡Áö·Î, WelshÀÇ ½Å³äµéÀÇ
Áø½Ç¼º¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿©´Â °ÅÀÇ Àǹ®ÀÌ ¾ø¾ú´Ù. ±×·¯³ª ±×ÀÇ Â¡º´ À§¿øÈ¸¿¡ ´ëÇØ¼, ±×¸®°í ÈÄÀÏ Ç×¼Ò À§¿øÈ¸ ¹× ¹ýÁ¤µé¿¡¼, WelshÀÇ ½Å³äÀº, ¾ç½ÉÀû
°ÅºÎ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÀÇȸÀÇ Á¤ÀÇÀÇ ¹Ù±ù¿¡ ºÐ¸íÈ÷ À§Ä¡ÇÏ´Â "Á¤Ä¡Àû, »çȸÇлó, ¶Ç´Â öÇÐÀû ½Ã°¢ ¶Ç´Â ´Ü¼øÈ÷ °³ÀÎÀû µµ´ö·ü¿¡ ¸í¹éÈ÷ ¼ÓÇÏ´Â °ÍÀ̾ú´Ù.
Welsh¿Í ±×ÀÇ º¯È£»çµéÀº Seeger ÆÇ°á¿¡ µû¸¥ Á¾±³¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ±¤ÀÇÀÇ Á¤ÀÇ¿¡ ÀǰÅÇÏ¿© ±â¼Ò°¡ ÃëÇϵǾî¾ß ÇÑ´Ù°í ÁÖÀåÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×µéÀº
¿ª½Ã, Seeger¿Í ±×·¨´ø °Í°ú »ó´çÈ÷ À¯»çÇϰÔ, Á¦6Á¶jÇ×ÀÇ ÇÕÇ强ÀÇ ±Ù°Å¿¡ ´ëÇØ °ø°ÝÇÏ¿´´Ù. SeegerÀÇ ¼Ò¼Ûó·³, ¹ý¿øÀº ´Ù½Ã ÇÕÇ强ÀÇ
¹®Á¦¸¦ ÇÇÇØ°¡±â·Î ¼±ÅÃÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×¸®°í ÀÌÀüó·³, ¹ýÁ¤Àº "Á¾±³"ÀÇ Àǹ̸¦ ³ÐÈú Çʿ䰡 ÀÖÀ½À» ¹ß°ßÇÏ¿´´Ù. Seeger ÆÇ°áÀº
¸¸ÀåÀÏÄ¡ÀÇ °áÁ¤À̾ú´ø ¹Ý¸é¿¡, Welsh ¼Ò¼ÛÀº °áÁ¤ÀûÀ¸·Î °á·Ð¿¡ À̸£Áö ¸øÇß´Ù. 4¸íÀÇ ÆÇ»çµéÀº, ÆÇ»ç BlackÀÇ ÁÖµµÇÏ¿¡, Á¾±³ÀÇ Á¤ÀǸ¦
³ÐÈú °Í¿¡ Ç¥¸¦ ´øÁ³´Ù. 3 ¸íÀÇ ÆÇ»çµéÀº ¹Ý´ëÇÏ¿´´Ù. ÆÇ»ç HarlanÀÌ Welsh°¡ À¯¸®ÇÏ°Ô Àú¿ïÀ» ´Þ¾Ò´ø °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ±×´Â ÆóÁöµÉ ¼öµµ ÀÖ´Â
ÀÇȸÀÇ ¿À·¡ Áö¼ÓÇÏ´Â Á¤Ã¥À» »ì¸®±â À§ÇÏ¿©, "Á¾±³Àû"ÀÇ Á¤ÀǸ¦ È®ÀåÇϱâ À§Çؼ°¡ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó, ±â¼Ò¸¦ µÚÁý±â·Î ÅõÇ¥ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¹ýÁ¤Àº Seeger
¼Ò¼ÛÀ» µÇµ¹¾Æ º¸¾ÒÀ¸¸ç, ±× °æ¿ì µî·ÏÀÚÀÇ ½Å³äµéÀÌ ÁøÁöÇϸç "ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ »ç¹°¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¹üÁÖ¿¡¼, Á¾±³Àû"ÀÎÁö¸¦ °áÁ¤ÇÏ´Â °ÍÀÌ Áß¿äÇÏ´Ù°í ¼±¾ðÇÏ¿´´ø
°ÍÀÌ´Ù. WelshÀÇ °æ¿ì, ¹ýÁ¤Àº ±× Á¤ÀǸ¦ ÇÑÃþ ´õ È®ÀåÇϱâ·Î °áÁ¤ÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, ´ÙÀ½°ú °°ÀÌ ±â·ÏÇÏ¿´´Ù: ¿ì¸®´Â ºÐ¸íÈ÷ Á¦6Á¶jÇ×ÀÌ "±Ùº»ÀûÀ¸·Î
Á¤Ä¡Àû, »çȸÇлó, ¶Ç´Â öÇÐÀû ½Ã°¢µé ¶Ç´Â ´Ü¼øÈ÷ °³ÀÎÀû µµ´ö·üÀ» °¡Áø" »ç¶÷µéÀ» ¹èÁ¦ÇÔÀ̿츮ÀÇ ±¹³» ¹× ¿Ü±¹ ¹®Á¦µé¿¡ ´ëÇÑ °ÇÑ ½Å³äµéÀ»
°¡Áø »ç¶÷µéÀ̳ª ½ÉÁö¾î ¸ðµç ÀüÀï¿¡ Âü¿©ÇÔ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ°¡ »ó´ç ¹üÀ§¿¡¼ °ø°ø Á¤Ã¥¿¡ ´ëÇÑ °í·Á À§¿¡¼ Çü¼ºµÈ »ç¶÷µéÀ» ¹èÁ¦ÇÔÀ¸·Î ÀÌÇØµÇ´Â
°ÍÀ¸·Î »ý°¢ÇÏÁö ¾Ê´Â´Ù. ±×·¯³ª ÀÌ·± ³í¸®·Î¼´Â, ½ÉÁö¾î Á¤Ä¡Àû ½Å³äµéµµ ±×°ÍµéÀÌ µî·ÏÀÚ°¡ ±í°í ÁøÁöÇÏ°Ô ÁÖÀåÇÏ´Â °ÍÀ̶ó¸é Á¾±³ÀûÀÎ °ÍÀ¸·Î
¿©°ÜÁö´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ¹ýÁ¤Àº ´ç½Ã ¹ý·ü¿¡¼ Á¦¿ÜµÊÀ» ÇÇÇØÇϱâ À§ÇÏ¿© ÀǹÌÇлóÀÇ ¼úÃ¥À» »ç¿ëÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¹ýÁ¤Àº ¸¸ÀÏ ¾î¶² »ç¶÷ÀÇ ½Å³äÀÌ Á¾±³¿¡ ´ëÇÑ
»õ·Î¿î ±¤ÀÇÀÇ °³³ä¿¡ ¼ÓÇÑ´Ù¸é "³í¸®ÀûÀ¸·Î "º»ÁúÀûÀ¸·Î Á¤Ä¡Àû, »çȸÇлó, µµ´Â öÇÐÀû"ÀÎ °ÍÀ¸·Î ¿©°ÜÁú ¼ö ¾ø´Ù´Â ÁÖÀåÀÌ´Ù. Welsh ÆÇ°á¿¡
°ðÀ̾î¼, ´ëüº¹¹«´Â, ÀÌÁ¦ Curtiss TarrÀÇ ÁöÈÖ ¾Æ·¡¼, ÀÚüÀÇ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Á¤Ã¥À» »õ·ÎÀÌ ÇÏ¿´´Ù. 1970³â 7¿ù 6ÀÏ
¹èÆ÷µÈ Áö¿ª À§¿øÈ¸ ȸº¸´Â Welsh °áÁ¤À» SSS Á¤Ã¥¿¡ Èí¼öÇÏ¿´´Ù. SSS´Â °³ÀÎÀÌ ÇѰ¡Áö ±¸Ã¼Àû ÀüÀï¿¡ ´ëÇØ¼°¡ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó ¸ðµç ÀüÀïµé¿¡
¹Ý´ëÇÑ´Ù´Â Á¡À» µÇÇ®ÇÏ¿´´Ù. Áß¿äÇÑ ½Ã±Ý¼®Àº ÀÌÁ¦ °³ÀÎÀÇ Áø½Ç¼ºÀ̾î¾ß Çϸç, ±×ÀÇ ½Å³äµéÀÇ ¼º°ÝÀ̳ª Ãâó°¡ ¾Æ´Ñ °ÍÀÌ´Ù. µî·ÏÀÚÀÇ
½Å³äµéÀº "¹Ýµå½Ã ±× »ç¶÷ÀÇ »î¿¡¼ ÁÖµÈ ÅëÁ¦·ÂÀ̾î¾ß¸¸ ÇÑ´Ù."
Tarr´Â »ó´çÇÑ ½Ã°£À» À§¿øÈ¸µéÀÌ µî·ÏÀÚÀÇ ½Å³äµéÀÌ ÀüÅëÀûÀÏ Çʿ䰡 ¾øÀ¸¸ç À§¿øÈ¸°¡ ±×ÀÇ ½Å³äµéÀÇ ³ÇؼºÀ» ±âÃÊ·Î µî·ÏÀÚÀÇ ÁÖÀåÀ» ±â°¢ÇÒ ¼ö
¾øÀ½À» ÀÌÇØÇϵµ·Ï È®½ÇÈ÷ Çϱâ À§ÇÑ ºñ¸Á·Ï¿¡ »ç¿ëÇß´Ù. À§¿øÈ¸´Â ¿ÀÁ÷ ±× »ç¶÷ÀÌ ºÒ¼º½ÇÇϴٰųª ±×ÀÇ °ÅºÎ°¡ "¿ÀÁ÷ Á¤Ã¥, ½Ç¿ëÁÖÀÇ, ¶Ç´Â
½Ã±Þ¼ºÀÇ °í·Á¿¡ ÀÇÁ¸Çϰí ÀÖ´Ù¸é ±× ÁÖÀåÀ» ±â°¢ÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù. ÀÌÁ¦ ºñ·Ï °ÅÀÇ ¸ðµç Á¾±³Àû ¸éÁ¦°¡ Çã¿ëµÇÁö¸¸, ÁÖ·ù Á¾±³°¡ ¾ÆÁ÷Àº Àã´ëÀÌ´Ù.
SSS ´ÙÀ½°ú °°Àº Àǹ«»çÇ×À» Ãß°¡Çß´Ù: "µî·ÏÀÚ´Â ¹Ýµå½Ã ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ À±¸®Àû ¶Ç´Â µµ´öÀû ½Å³äµéÀÌ ÈÆ·Ã, ¿¬±¸, ¸í»ó, ¶Ç´Â ±âŸ Ȱµ¿À» ÅëÇÏ¿©
¾ò¾îÁø °ÍÀ̸ç, À̰͵éÀÌ Á¾±³Àû ½Å³äµéÀÌ Çü¼ºµÇ´Â ¾ö°ÝÇÔ ¹× Çå½Å°ú ºñ°ßµÉ ¼ö ÀÖÀ½À» Áõ¸íÇÏ¿©¾ß ÇÑ´Ù." Tarr´Â, Seeger-Welsh
ÆÇ°áÀÌ ÀÛ¿ëÇßÀ½À» ¾Ï½ÃÇßÀ¸¸ç, 1970³â ¸»¿¡ ÀÇȸ¿¡ º¸³»´Â ±×ÀÇ º¸°í¼¿¡¼ ±×´Â ÀÌ ¹®Á¦¿¡ °üÇÏ¿© Áö¿ª À§¿øÈ¸¿¡°Ô ÇÊ¿äÇÑ Ãß°¡Àû
ÈÆ·ÃÀÌ ÇÊ¿äÇÏ´Ù°í ¾ð±ÞÇß´Ù. ´ëüº¹¹«ÀÇ Åë°è¸¦ »ìÆìº¸Æí, I-O·Î ºÐ·ùµÈ »ç¶÷µéÀÇ ¼öÄ¡¿¡, 1969³â 15,855¸í¿¡¼ºÎÅÍ 1970³â
28,188¸íÀ¸·Î¼, Çö°ÝÇÑ Áõ°¡°¡ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ±× ¼öÄ¡µéÀº ½ÉÁö¾î 1971³â¿¡´Â 36,713¸íÀ¸·Î¼ ´õ¿í ³ô¾ÒÀ¸³ª, 1972³â ¹× 1973³â¿¡´Â
¡º´ÀÌ Àæ¾Æµé¸é¼ »ó´çÇÑ °¨¼Ò°¡ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. Welsh ÆÇ°áÀÌ ÀÌµé ¼öÄ¡¿¡ ¾ó¸¶³ª ¿µÇâÀ» ÁÖ¾ú´ÂÁö °¡´ÆÇϱâ´Â ¾î·Æ´Ù. ¸í¹éÇÑ °ÍÀº,
WelshÆÇ°á¤©Àº ¿ÀÁ÷ 6¿ù Áß¼ø ¹«·ÆÀÇ 1970³â Åë°è¿¡ ¿µÇâÀ» ÁÖ¾úÀ¸³ª, ¿ùº° ¼öÄ¡µéÀÌ º¸¿©ÁÖµíÀÌ ³ª¸ÓÁö ÇØµéÀº º¯È°¡ ¾ø¾ú´Ù. TarrÀº
¾ð±ÞÇϱ⸦ ±×´Â Welsh ÆÇ°áÀÌ ´õ ¸¹Àº CO ½ÅûµéÀ» ¾ß±âÇÏÁö´Â ¾Ê¾ÒÀ¸³ª, ±×°ÍÀÌ ¾Æ¸¶µµ "Áö¿ª À§¿øÈ¸µéÀÌ I-O¿¡ ½ÅûÀÚµé Áß¿¡¼ ´õ ¸¹Àº
»ç¶÷µéÀ» ºÐ·ùÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖµµ·Ï ¿µÇâÀ» ÁÖ¾ú´Ù°í ¹Ï´Â´Ù"°í Çß´Ù. |
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Áú·¹Æ® ´ë ¹ÌÇÕÁß±¹
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Section 6(j) faced one final attack before the
Vietnam War ended. In Gillette v. United
States, the two
petitioners, Gillette and Negre, tried like Seeger and Welsh to claim that
Section 6(j) was
unconstitutional. But unlike the previous cases before the Court, Gillette and
Negre did not claim
to object to all war. Rather, they specifically objected to the Vietnam War.
The opinion shown by the two petitioners is known as "selective
conscientious objection." Selective
conscientious objection is nearly as old as the type of objection practiced by
Seeger and Welsh.
Selective conscientious objection is most often embodied in the "just
war" theory, which has
long resided within the Catholic tradition. Gillette, "based on a humanist approach to
religion," found the Vietnam War to be unjust. Gillette wrote: "I object to any assignment in the United
States Armed Forces while this unnecessary and unjust war is being waged, on the
grounds of religious belief specifically 'Humanism.' This essentially means
respect and love for man, faith in his inherent goodness and perfectability [sic],
and confidence in his capability to improve some of the pains of the human
condition."46
He did state that he was willing to serve in time
of national defense, or in a peace-keeping situation.47
Vietnam, he believed, met neither of these two
conditions. Louis
Negre, a devout Catholic, sought a discharge from the military. He had allowed himself to be inducted because he wanted to
"understand the Army's explanation of its reasons for violence in Vietnam."48
By the time he had finished training, he had made
up his mind. He applied for
a C.O. discharge on the grounds of the "just war" theory.49
By 1971 a number of major Protestant denominations,
including the Presbyterian Church in the United States, the Lutheran Church in America,
the Disciples of Christ, and the United Church of Christ, had passed resolutions supporting
selective conscientious objection.50
On the other
hand, a number of denominations voted down resolutions supporting selective
conscientious objection.51
The issue was quite contentious, provoking one
United Church congregation to
threaten withdrawal from the denomination if the denomination supported
selective objectors.52
Despite acceptance by Catholics and non-Catholics
alike, the U.S. government had never endorsed the Just War Theory. Since 1917, the draft laws
stated that only those who were opposed to "war in any form" may be exempted from military
service.53
The Court's decision, handed down on March 8, 1971,
upheld the government's position.54
The Court held that, even if the objection was
religious in nature, selective objection violated the draft law.55
The Court also rejected the constitutional
challenge. Negre and Gillette argued that the law interfered with their free exercise of
religion because it did not allow religious selective objection and that by specifying a religious
belief, Congress was establishing a religion. The Court found that the section did not discriminate and
that it focused on individual conscience, not group membership or creed. Furthermore, the section was
"not designed to interfere with any religious practice and does not penalize any theological
position."56
The petitioners also held that Section 6(j) discriminated between religions, favoring
those that qualify for conscientious objector status, in violation of the Fifth Amendment's "equal
protection" clause. The Court also held that Section 6(j) "survives the Establishment Clause because
there are neutral, secular reasons to justify the line that Congress has drawn."57
The operation of the Selective Service naturally
remained unchanged as a result of the Gillette case.
In anticipation of the case, the S.S.S. had commented on the possible effects of
allowing selective conscientious objection. It
concluded that the S.S.S. "probably could not continue to operate" under selective
conscientious objection. "It is doubtful," the S.S.S. wrote,
"that local boards could cope with the decisions on sincerity" that
selective objection would raise. Based
on the level of anti-Vietnam protest at the time, there certainly would have
been a drastic jump
in the number of conscientious objectors. In a system already experiencing
difficulty placing C.O.s
in alternate service, selective conscientious objection would have been
disastrous. ¡¡ |
Á¦6Á¶jÇ×Àº º£Æ®³² ÀüÀïÀÌ ³¡³ª±â Àü¿¡ ÇѰ¡Áö ¸¶Áö¸· °ø°Ý¿¡ Á÷¸éÇß´Ù. Áú·¹Æ® ´ë ¹ÌÇÕÁß±¹ ¼Ò¼Û¿¡¼, µÎ û¿øÀÚÀÎ
Gillette¿Í Negre´Â, Seeger¿Í Welshó·³ Á¦6Á¶jÇ×ÀÌ ºñÇå¹ýÀûÀ̶ó°í ÁÖÀåÇÏ·Á ½ÃµµÇß´Ù. ±×·¯³ª ¹ýÁ¤¿¡¼ÀÇ ÀÌÀüÀÇ
¼Ò¼Ûµé°ú´Â ´Þ¸®,
Gillette¿Í Negre´Â ¸ðµç ÀüÀïÀ» °ÅºÎÇÑ´Ù°í ÁÖÀåÇÏÁö ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. ¿ÀÈ÷·Á, ±×µéÀº ±¸Ã¼ÀûÀ¸·Î º£Æ®³² ÀüÀï¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿© °ÅºÎÇÏ¿´´Ù. µÎ û¿øÀÚ°¡
º¸¿©ÁØ ÀǰßÀº "¼±ÅÃÀû ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ"·Î ¾Ë·ÁÁ® ÀÖ´Ù. ¼±ÅÃÀû ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ´Â Seeger¿Í Welsh°¡ ½ÇÇàÇß´ø °Í ¸¸ÅÀ̳ª °ÅÀÇ ¿À·¡µÈ °ÍÀÌ´Ù.
¼±ÅÃÀû ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ´Â ´ëüÀûÀ¸·Î ÈçÈ÷ "Á¤ÀÇÀÇ ÀüÀï"À̷п¡ ±¸Ã¼ÈµÇ¾î ÀÖÀ¸¸ç, À̰ÍÀº Ä«Å縯ÀÇ ÀüÅë ¾È¿¡¼ ¿À·§µ¿¾È À¯ÁöµÇ¾î ¿Ô´ø °ÍÀÌ´Ù.
Gillette´Â, "Á¾±³¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Àι®ÁÖÀÇÀÚÀÇ ½Ãµµ¿¡ ±Ù°ÅÇÏ¿©," º£Æ®³² ÀüÀïÀ» Á¤ÀÇ·ÓÁö ¸øÇÏ´Ù´Â °ÍÀ» ¾Ë¾Ò´Ù. Gillette´Â ±â·ÏÇÏ¿´´Ù:
"³ª´Â Áö±ÝÀÇ ºÒÇÊ¿äÇϰí Á¤´çÇÏÁö ¸øÇÑ ÀüÀïÀÌ ½ÇÇàµÇ´Â ÇÑ, Á¾±³Àû ½Å³ä, ƯÈ÷ 'Àηù¾Ö'¸¦ ÀÌÀ¯·Î, ¹ÌÇÕÁß±¹ÀÇ ±º´ë¿¡ ¹è¼ÓÀ» °ÅºÎÇÑ´Ù. À̰ÍÀº
±Ùº»ÀûÀ¸·Î Àΰ£¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Á¸¾ö°ú »ç¶û, »ç¶÷¿¡°Ô ³»ÀçµÈ ¼±ÇÔ°ú ¿ÏÀü¼º¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¹ÏÀ½, ±×¸®°í Àΰ£ÀÇ »óÅ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ °íÅëµéÀÇ ÀϺθ¦ °³¼±ÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´Â
»ç¶÷ÀÇ ´É·Â¿¡ ´ëÇÑ È®½ÅÀ» ÀǹÌÇÑ´Ù." ±×´Â ±¹°¡¸¦ ¹æ¾îÇÏ´Â ¶§¿¡, ¤¨´Â ÆòÈ À¯Áö »óȲ¿¡ ±â²¨ÀÌ º¹Á¾Çϸ®¶ó°í Áø¼úÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×°¡ ¹Ï±â¿¡ º£Æ®³²
ÀüÀïÀº ÀÌµé µÎ°¡Áö »óȲ Áß ¾î´À °Íµµ ÃæÁ·½ÃŰÁö ¸øÇß´Ù. µ¶½ÇÇÑ Ä«Å縯ÀÎ Louis Negre´Â ±º´ë¿¡¼ Á¦´ë¸¦ ¿øÇß´Ù. ±×´Â º£Æ®³²¿¡¼ÀÇ
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ÀÌÈÄ, ¡º´¹ýµéÀº, ¿ÀÁ÷ "¸ðµç ÇüÅÂÀÇ ÀüÀï"¿¡ ¹Ý´ëÇÏ´Â »ç¶÷µé¸¸ÀÌ º´¿ª¿¡¼ ¸éÁ¦µÉ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù°í ¼±¾ðÇÏ¿´´Ù. 1971³â 3¿ù 8ÀÏ
³»·ÁÁø ¹ý¿øÀÇ ÆÇ°áÀº, Á¤ºÎÀÇ ÀÔÀåÀ» ÁöÁöÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¹ý¿øÀº, ºñ·Ï °ÅºÎ°¡ º»Áú¿¡ ÀÖ¾î¼ Á¾±³ÀûÀÌÁö¸¸, ¼±ÅÃÀû °ÅºÎ´Â ¡º´¹ýÀ» À§¹ÝÇÏ´Â °ÍÀ̶ó°í
ÁÖÀåÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¹ý¿øÀº ¶ÇÇÑ Çå¹ýÀûÀÎ ÀÌÀǸ¦ ºÎÁ¤Çß´Ù. Negre¿Í Gillette´Â ¹ý·üÀÌ Á¾±³ÀûÀÎ ¼±ÅÃÀû °ÅºÎ¸¦ Çã¿ëÇÏÁö ¾ÊÀ¸¹Ç·Î Á¾±³¿¡ ´ëÇÑ
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¶Ç´Â ½ÅÁ¶°¡ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó °³ÀÎÀÇ ¾ç½É¿¡ ÃÊÁ¡À» ¸ÂÃá °ÍÀ̶ó°í º¸¾Ò´Ù. ´õ ³ª¾Æ°¡¼, Á¶Ç×Àº "¾î¶°ÇÑ Á¾±³Àû °üÇà¿¡µµ °³ÀÔÇÏÁö ¾ÊÀ¸¸ç ¾î¶°ÇÑ ½ÅÇÐÀû
ÀÔÀåµµ ó¹úÇÏÁö ¾Êµµ·Ï ±ÔÁ¤µÇ¾ú´Ù´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù. û¿øÀÚµéÀº ¶ÇÇÑ Á¦6Á¶jÇ×ÀÌ Á¾±³ °£¿¡ Â÷º°À» µÎ°í ÀÖÀ¸¸ç Á¦ 5 ¼öÁ¤ Çå¹ýÀÇ "µ¿µîÇÑ º¸È£"
Á¶Ç×À» À§¹ÝÇÏ¿© ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚ µî±Þ¿¡ ÀûÇÕÇÑ »ç¶÷µé¿¡°Ô¸¸ À¯¸®Çϵµ·Ï µÇ¾î ÀÖ´Ù°í ÁÖÀåÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¹ý¿øÀº ¶ÇÇÑ Á¦6Á¶jÇ×ÀÌ ÀÇȸ°¡ ±×¾î ³õÀº ¼±À»
Á¤´çÈÇϱâ À§ÇÏ¿© Á߸³ÀûÀÌ¸ç ¼¼¼ÓÀûÀÎ ÀÌÀ¯µéÀ» °¡Áö°í ÀÖÀ¸¹Ç·Î "±ÔÁ¤" Á¶Ç׿¡ ÀûÇÕÇÏ´Ù°í ÆÇ½ÃÇÏ¿´´Ù. ´ëüº¹¹«ÀÇ ¿î¿µÀº ÀÚ¿¬È÷ Gillette
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³»¸®±â¸¦, ¼±ÅÃÀû ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ ¾Æ·¡¼´Â SSS°¡ "¾Æ¸¶µµ °è¼ÓÇØ¼ ÀÛ¿ëÇÒ ¼ö ¾øÀ»" °ÍÀ̶ó°í Çß´Ù. SSS´Â ±â·ÏÇϱâ·Î, "Áö¿ª À§¿øÈ¸°¡ ¼±ÅÃÀû
°ÅºÎ°¡ Á¦±âÇÏ´Â Áø½Ç¼º¿¡ ´ëÇÑ °áÁ¤µéÀ» ó¸®ÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖÀ» Áö Àǽɽº·´´Ù"°í ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±× ½Ã´ëÀÇ º£Æ®³² ¹ÝÀü ¿îµ¿ÀÇ ½Éµµ¿¡ ºñÃß¾î º¸°Ç´ë ¾ç½ÉÀû
°ÅºÎÀÚ µéÀÇ ¼öÄ¡´Â ¸í¹éÈ÷ ¾öû³ Áõ°¡°¡ ÀÖÀ» ¼ö°¡ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ÀÌ¹Ì COµéÀ» ´ëü º¹¹«¿¡ ¹èÄ¡ÇÔ¿¡ ¾î·Á¿òÀ» °Þ°í ÀÖ´ø Á¦µµÇÏ¿¡¼, ¼±ÅÃÀû ¾ç½ÉÀû
°ÅºÎ´Â Àç¾Ó°ú °°¾ÒÀ» °ÍÀÌ´Ù. |
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The draft, and the need for a conscientious
objection provision, ended on July 1, 1973.58
The nature
of this provision in 1973 was very different from the one used at the start of
the Vietnam War.
In the interim, the Supreme Court broadened, then stretched, the meaning of
"religion" as it related
to conscientious objection. But despite allowing nearly any sincere objection to
all war, the Court
did not allow selective objection, even if it was based on an established
religious belief like the "just
war" theory. Throughout the three cases, the Court was able to avoid ruling
against either the
aspects of the conscription law or the constitutionality of the draft. Rather,
it chose to expand the
meaning of "religion" to the point where the definition was almost
meaningless.
¡¡
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Footnotes
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1. Statutes
at Large 54 (1940):889. Emphasis
added.
2. Statutes
at Large 62 (1948):613.
3. United
States v Seeger 380 US 166-67 (1965).
4.
Mansavage,
"Alternatives to Arms," 24.
5. Seeger,
380 US 166-7.
6. Robert
L. Babin, "The Conscientious Objection:A Study in Legal
Efficacy"(Ph.D. diss., Northwestern University, 1967),
54-57, as cited in Mansavage, "Alternatives to Arms," 23.
7. Seeger,
380 US 166-7.
8. Ibid.,
167-8.
9. Ibid.
10. Ibid., 169.
11. Ibid., 173.
12. "Congress
shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the
free exercise thereof..." U.S.
Constitution, amend. 1. For the legal argument, see Seeger, 380 US 165,
and Bruce Houston, "Conscientious Objectors:The Aftermath of United
States v. Seeger" Albany Law Review 30 (June 1966):307, 311.
13. Seeger,
380 US 165, Houston, "Conscientious Objectors," 307, and Robert L.
Rabin, "When is a Religious Belief Religious:United
States v. Seegerand the Scope of Free Exercise," Cornell Law
Quarterly, 51 (Winter 1966):237.
14. Statutes
at Large 62 (1948):613.
15. Seeger,
380 US 165.
16. Ibid., 166.
17. Selective
Service System, Report of the Director of Selective Service to the Congress
of the United States Pursuant to the
Universal Military Training and Service Act as amended (Washington,
D.C.:Government Printing Office, 1965), 40.
18. "New
Form 150," The Reporter for Conscience' Sake25 (October, 1968): 1.
19. Interview,
William Yolton, NISBCO [National Interreligious Service Board for Conscientious
Objectors] Director, 12 March 1990,
Washington, D.C., tape recording, as cited in Mansavage, "Alternatives to
Arms," 26.
20. Selective
Service System, Report, 1967, 15.
21. Statutes
at Large 81 (1967):104.
22. H.R. Rep.
No. 267, 90th Cong., 1st Ses. (1967), reprinted in 1967 U.S.C.C.A.N. 1308, 1334,
as quoted in Palmer, "Time to
Exorcise," 208.
23. Number
of men classified as I-O. Does not included C.O.s who are "at work"
(I-W), of which there were 6,367 in 1967
and 8,743 in 1969. Selective Service System, Semi-Annual Report, 1970,
no. 2, 46.
24. Ibid.
25. Public
support for American involvement in Vietnam slid down throughout the war,
especially after the early 1968 Tet
Offensive. William L. Lunch and Peter W. Sperlich, "American Public Opinion
and the War in Vietnam" Western Political Quarterly32 (March
1979):21-44. By law, conscientious objection could only object to all wars, so
theoretically, a decline in public opinion should not affect C.O. statistics.
But objectors are quite human, and are definitely affected by events. On the
other hand, the cancellation of graduate school deferments in early 1968
increased the pool of men eligible for the draft (Flynn, The Draft, 221-3).
It is probable that some of these men then applied for conscientious objection
status.
26. Seeger,
380 US 184.
27. Houston,
"Conscientious Objectors," 310. Italics in original.
28. Ibid.
29. Welsh
v. United States, 398 US 335 (1965).
30. Ibid., 342.
31. Ibid., 337.
32. The Court
of Appeals mentioned that "[t]he government concedes that [Welsh's] beliefs
are held with the strength of more
traditional religious convictions." Ibid., 337-8.
33. Ibid., 333.
34. Justice
Blackmun took no part in the Welshcase. Ibid., 344.
35. Justice
Harlan's concurring opinion,Ibid., 345. See also Ibid., 335.
36. Ibid.,
339.
37. Ibid., 342.
38. Ibid., 343.
39. Selective
Service System, Report, 1971, no. 1, 39-41.
40. Ibid.
41.Ibid.
42. Curtis Tarr, By the Numbers:
The Reform of the Selective Service System 1970-1972
(Washington, DC:
National Defense
University Press, 1981),
85, and Selective Service System, Report, 1971-1, 39-41.
43.
Tarr, By the Numbers,
87 and Selective Service System, Report, 1970, no. 2, 9
44.
Beginning in June 1970, the S.S.S. kept detailed monthly statistics on
C.O.s. These figures can be found in Selective
Service System, Report, 1970, no. 2, 8 and Selective Service System, Report,
1971, no. 1, 58. Unfortunately, these figures cover only one year, making the
sample too small to draw any definite conclusions about the impact of the Welsh
case.
45. Selective Service System, Report, 1970, no. 2, 8.
46. Justice
Douglas, dissenting on No. 85 (Gillette), Gillette v United States, 401
US 463 (1971).
47. Ibid., 439.
48. Justice
Douglas, dissenting in No. 325 (Negre),Ibid., 473-475.
49. Ibid.. Members
of the armed forces are able to apply for C.O. status under the same standards
used by the Selective Service. Department
of Defense Directive No. 1300.6 (May 10, 1968), Gillette, 401 US 442,
footnote 6.
50. "Church
and Society Paper" Presbyterian Survey59 (June 1969): 24;
"Action at Atlanta" The Lutheran6 (July 17, 1968):8;
"We Resolve" The Christian(Disciples of Christ) 105 (December
3, 1967):11. The Disciples of Christ first supported selective conscientious
objection, then revoked the measure, only to re-instate support later;
"Business--'Internal' and 'External'" The Christian106
(November 17, 1968):9; David F. Marshall, "We Have Opened Another
Door" United Church Herald10 (August 1967):16.
51. United
Presbyterian Church:"The Assembly Views War, Peace, Justice at Home and
Abroad" Presbyterian Life 20
(June 15, 1967):42; Episcopal:"What Did We Actually Do?" The
Episcopalian132 (November 1967):40; United Methodist:"A Union...and
Much More" Together12 (July 1968):5-7, 9-16.
52. "Houston
Church Threatens to Withdraw From Denomination," United Church Herald10
(November 1967):32- 33.
53. No mention
is made of this during the Civil War, but only members of pacifist sects, who
opposed all war, qualified for the
exemption.
54. Gillette,
401 US 437-438.
55. Both
petitioners' beliefs qualified as "religious" according to the
definition laid out by Seeger and Welsh.
56. Gillette,
401 US 437-438.
57. Ibid., 449.
58. In-service
objection still remains, although there is a debate as to its current
usefulness. See Palmer, "Time to Exorcise."
¡¡
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[ Introduction ] [ 1. The Development of Conscientious Objection Through World War I ] [ 2. World War II and the Origin of Modern Conscientious Objection ] [ 3. Legal History of Conscientious Objection ] [ 4. Conscientious Objection During the Vietnam War ] [ 5. The Religious Response to Conscientious Objection ] [ 6. Conclusion ] [ Tables and Charts ] [ Bibliography ]
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