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"By
Reason of Religious Training and Belief..."
A History of
Conscientious
Objection and Religion
during the
Vietnam War
By Karl D. Nelson
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Chapter II:
World War II and the Origin of
Modern Conscientious Objection
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Á¦ 2 Àå:
Á¦2Â÷ ¼¼°è´ëÀü°ú Çö´ëÀû ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÇ ±â¿ø
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"Work of National Importance"
Public Opinion
Religious Response to Conscientious Objection
The Post-War Period
Conclusion
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"Work of National Importance"
Public Opinion
Religious Response to Conscientious Objection
The Post-War Period
Conclusion
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World War II laid much of the legal and administrative framework for
Vietnam-era conscientious
objection. In 1940 Congress created the Selective Service System, which would remain largely unchanged until the 1960s. With this
legislation, Congress for the first time exempted religious objectors regardless of their
denominational affiliation.
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Á¦2Â÷ ¼¼°è´ëÀüÀº º£Æ®³² ÀüÀï ½Ã±âÀÇ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¸¦ À§ÇÑ
¹ý·üÀû ¹× ÇàÁ¤Àû ±âƲÀÇ ´ëºÎºÐÀ» ¸¶·ÃÇÏ¿´´Ù. 1940³â
ÀÇȸ´Â ´ëü º¹¹« Á¦µµ¸¦ â¼³ÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, À̰ÍÀº 1960³â´ë
±îÁö ´ëüÀûÀ¸·Î º¯°æµÇÁö ¾Ê°í ³²¾Æ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ÀÌ·±
ÀÔ¹ýÀ¸·Î¼, ÀÇȸ´Â óÀ½À¸·Î Á¾±³Àû °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀ» ±×µéÀÇ
Á¾ÆÄÀû ¿¬´ë¿Í °ü°è¾øÀÌ ¸éÁ¦ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¡¡
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In 1940, with the war raging in Europe and dark clouds over the Pacific, the
United States began
drafting men. The Selective Service Act (1940) created the Selective Service
System, an institution
which remained much the same through the Vietnam War. Also under this law, for
the first
time conscientious objection was recognized to be a matter of individual
conscience, not group affiliation
or creed. Congress provided for conscientious objection with the inclusion of
Section 5(g) of
the Selective Service Act, which stated that: Nothing contained in this Act shall be construed to
require any person to be subject to combatant training and service in the land
or naval forces of the United States who, by reason of religious training and
belief, is conscientiously opposed to participation in war in any form.1[emphasis
added] Despite
the dismissal of the group requirement, World War II (WWII) conscientious
objectors were still
predominately members of the historic peace churches. However, some objectors
with mainstream
religious views were also classified as conscientious objectors. In all cases
the objectors
had religious affiliation and demonstrated opposition to participation in all
war. Nearly
12,000 men entered the Civilian Public Service camps, the non-military work designed for conscientious objectors. The Selective
Service estimates that about 25,000 C.O.s entered the army as non-combatants.2
Registrants were classified as conscientious
objectors only if
they did not qualify for a myriad of deferments. Therefore, many men who held
pacifist beliefs were
likely deferred for other reasons.3
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1940³â, ÀüÀïÀÌ À¯·´¿¡¼ ¸ÍÀ§¸¦ ¶³Ä¡°í ÅÂÆò¾ç¿¡ ¾îµÎ¿î
±¸¸§µéÀÌ ´þÈú ´ë, ¹ÌÇÕÁß±¹Àº ³²ÀÚµéÀ» ¡º´Çϱ⠽ÃÀÛÇß´Ù.
´ëü º¹¹« ¹ý(1940)Àº ´ëü º¹¹« Á¦µµ¸¦ â¼³ÇßÀ¸¸ç, ÀÌ
±â°üÀº º£Æ®³² ÀüÀïÀÌ ³¡³¯ ¶§±îÁö °ÅÀÇ º¯ÇÔ¾øÀÌ
Á¸¼ÓµÇ¾ú´Ù. ¶ÇÇÑ ÀÌ ¹ý·ü ¾Æ·¡¼, ÃÖÃÊ·Î ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ°¡
Áý´Ü°úÀÇ ¿¬´ë ¶Ç´Â ½ÅÁ¶°¡ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó °³ÀÎÀÇ ¾ç½ÉÀÇ ¹®Á¦·Î
ÀÎÁ¤µÇ¾ú´Ù. ÀÇȸ´Â ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿© ´ëü º¹¹« ¹ýÀÇ
Á¦5(g)Ç׿¡ »ðÀÔÇÏ¿© ±ÔÁ¤ÇÏ¿´´Â ¹Ù, ÀÌ¿Í °°ÀÌ ¼±¾ðÇÏ¿´´Ù: ÀÌ
¹ý¿¡ ´ã±ä ¾î´À °Íµµ, Á¾±³Àû ÈÆ·Ã ¹× ½Å³ä¿¡ ÀÇÇÏ¿©,
¾ç½ÉÀûÀ¸·Î ¾î¶² ÇüÅÂÀÇ ÀüÀï¿¡µµ Âü¿©Çϱ⸦ °ÅºÎÇÏ´Â
¾î¶² °³ÀÎÀÌ ¹ÌÇÕÁß±¹ÀÇ Áö»ó ¹× ÇØ»ó ±º´ë¿¡¼ ÀüÅõÈÆ·Ã ¹×
º¹¹«¿¡ Ã³ÇØÁüÀ¸·Î ÇØ¼®µÉ ¼ö°¡ ¾ø´Ù.(°Á¶³»¿ëÀÌ Ãß°¡µÊ). ´Üü
¿ä°ÇÀ» ¿ÏÈ¿¡µµ ºÒ±¸Çϰí, Á¦2Â÷ ¼¼°è´ëÀü(WWII)ÀÇ ¾ç½ÉÀû
°ÅºÎÀÚµéÀº ¿©ÀüÈ÷ ¿ª»çÀû ÆòÈ ±³È¸µéÀÇ ±¸¼º¿øµéÀ̾ú´Ù.
±×·¯³ª, ÀϺΠÁÖ·ù Á¾±³Àû ½Ã°¢µéµµ ¶ÇÇÑ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚµé·Î
ºÐ·ùµÇ¾ú´Ù. ¸ðµç °æ¿ìµé¿¡ ÀÖ¾î¼ °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀº Á¾±³Àû
¿¬´ë¸¦ °¡Á³À¸¸ç ¸ðµç ÀüÀï¿¡ Âü¿©ÇÔ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ °ÅºÎ¸¦
³ªÅ¸³»¾ú´Ù. °ÅÀÇ 12,000¸íÀÇ »ç¶÷µéÀÌ, ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀ»
À§ÇØ °èȹµÈ ºñ±º»çÀû Ȱµ¿À¸·Î¼, ¹Î°£
°øÀÍ ±Ù¹« Ä·ÇÁ¿¡ µé¾î°¬´Ù. ´ëü º¹¹«´Â ¾à 25,000 ¸íÀÇ COµéÀÌ
ºñÀüÅõ¿øÀ¸·Î ±º´ë¿¡ µé¾î°¬´Ù°í ÃßÁ¤ÇÑ´Ù. µî·ÏÀÚµéÀº
±×µéÀÌ ¸¹Àº À¯¿¹¿¡ ÀûÇÕÇÏÁö ¾Ê´Ù¸é ¿ÀÁ÷ ¾ç½ÉÀû
°ÅºÎÀÚµé·Î ºÐ·ùµÇ¾ú´Ù. ±×·¯¹Ç·Î ÆòÈÁÖÀÇ ½Å³äµå¸¦ Áö´Ñ
¸¹Àº »ç¶÷µéÀÌ ´Ù¸¥ ÀÌÀ¯µé·Î À¯¿¹µÉ °¡´É¼ºÀÌ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù.
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The Selective Service Act provided for the creation of a decentralized system
of local draft boards,
with state and national appeal boards. Although policy was determined
nationally, virtually
all decisions regarding draft status and deferments were made by some 4,000
local draft boards.4
These boards consisted of at least three members,
each appointed for life. Ideally, they were members of the community over which the board
had jurisdiction, but this was not always the case.5
While some draft boards judged each case according
to the rules, others simply did not grant
conscientious objector deferments.6
In case an applicant did not receive the
classification he had
desired, there was a system of local and national appeal boards. The decentralized system was largely the product of
its long-time director, General Lewis B. Hershey. Hershey was a career military officer who
had worked on conscription issues since 1926.7
Although he had Mennonite ancestors, Hershey was unchurched.8
Hershey, a conservative Republican,was a strong advocate of state's rights,
and he was very wary of a strong, centralized government.9
Largely due to the force of his personality, the
S.S.S. remained highly decentralized. Led by a national headquarters, the Selective
Service was mostly made up of volunteers.10
The local
boards were the responsibility of the state governors, not the national
headquarters. During World War II, Hershey bragged that the local boards "need not pay any
attention to 99 percent of the
things we sent out....It is a good thing they do not have to."11
Hershey was initially an assistant to the civilian
director of the S.S.S. When the director resigned in 1941, Hershey was appointed to the
position, where he remained until early 1970.12
Hershey, despite his secular and military
background, was rather tolerant of conscientious objection, instructing the boards to give equal
treatment to conscientious objectors. To Hershey, conscientious objection was an "experiment in
democracy...to find out whether our democracy is big enough to preserve minority rights in a time of
national emergency."13
Hershey himself did his part to help conscientious
objectors. Hershey ran the presidential appeal board, the final level of appeal available
to registrants. This board was significantly more liberal in granting C.O. classifications than the
local boards. Only about ten percent of registrants appealing to the presidential board were given I-A
(available for military service) status, whereas local boards rejected C.O. claims over seventy-five
percent of the time.14
This discrepancy could be due, in part, to the fact that a registrant
persistent enough to take his case through the multi- layered appeal process was probably viewed by the
presidential board as having more sincerity than at the local board level. Nevertheless,
Hershey and the presidential appeal board were clearly much more tolerant of conscientious
objectors than the local boards. Hershey
was proud of the success of the conscientious objector program, writing,
"we today live
in a country where the small minority can enjoy freedom of conscience and not be
placed in concentration
camps on account of their belief."15
Hershey's attitude was quite unlike many
government officials, let alone military officers.16
Yet, despite the successes of classification,
conscientious objection did pose significant
problems during World War II. Conscientious objectors who refused to enter the military were required to serve in the Civilian
Public Service camps, which some
objectors viewed as being quite similar to the "concentration camps"
Hershey was proud to have
avoided.
¡¡
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Áö´ÔÀ¸·Î¼, ºÐ»êÈµÈ Áö¿ª ¡º´ À§¿øÈ¸ÀÇ ¼³¸³À»
±ÔÁ¤ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ºñ·Ï Á¤Ã¥Àº ±¹°¡Àû Â÷¿ø¿¡¼ °áÁ¤µÇÁö¸¸,
»ç½Ç»ó ¡º´ ÀÚ°Ý ¹× À¯¿¹¿¡ °üÇÑ ¸ðµç °áÁ¤µéÀº ¾à 4,000¿©ÀÇ
Áö¿ª ¡º´ À§¿øÈ¸¿¡ ÀÇÇÏ¿© °áÁ¤µÇ¾ú´Ù. À̵é
À§¿øÈ¸µéÀº Àû¾îµµ ¼¼¸íÀÇ ÀÓ¿øÀ¸·Î ±¸¼ºµÇ¸ç °¢ÀÚ´Â
Æò»ýÁ÷À¸·Î ÀÓ¸íµÈ´Ù. °³³äÀûÀ¸·Î, ±×µéÀº À§¿øÈ¸°¡
°üÇÒ±ÇÀ» °¡Áö´Â °øµ¿Ã¼ÀÇ ±¸¼º¿øµéÀÌÁö¸¸, ¾ðÁ¦³ª
±×·± °ÍÀº ¾Æ´Ï¾ú´Ù. ÀϺΠ¡º´ À§¿øÈ¸µéÀÌ Á¦°¢±â
»ç¾ÈÀ» ±ÔÁ¤µé¿¡ µû¶ó ÆÇÁ¤ÇÏÁö¸¸, ´Ù¸¥ À§¿øÈ¸µéÀº
¸·¿¬È÷ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚÀÇ À¯¿¹µéÀ» ÀÎÁ¤ÇÏÁö ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù.
Áö¿øÀÚ°¡ ÀÚ½ÅÀÌ Èñ¸ÁÇÏ´Â ºÐ·ù¸¦ ¾òÁö ¸øÇÏ´Â °æ¿ì,
Áö¿ª ¹× ±¹°¡Àû Ç×¼Ò Á¦µµ°¡ Á¸ÀçÇß´Ù. ºÐ»êÈµÈ Á¦µµ´Â
ÁÖ·Î ¿À·§µ¿¾È ÀÚ¸®Çß´ø ±¹ÀåÀÎ,
Lewis B. Hershey À屺ÀÇ ÀÛǰÀ̾ú´Ù.
Hershey Á÷¾÷ ±º»ç Àå±³·Î¼ 1926³â
ÀÌÈÄ Â¡Áý ¹®Á¦¿¡ °üÇÏ¿© ÀÏÇØ¿Ô´Ù. ºñ·Ï ±×ÀÇ ¼±Á¶°¡
¸Þ³ëÆÄ¿´Áö¸¸, Hershey ´Â
±³È¸¸¦ ¸ô¶ú´Ù. Hershey´Â,
º¸¼öÀû °øÈÁÖÀÇÀڷμ, ±¹°¡ ±Ç¸®µéÀÇ °·ÂÇÑ
¿ËÈ£ÀÚ¿´À¸¸ç, ±×´Â °·ÂÇϰí Áß¾ÓÁý±ÇÀûÀÎ Á¤ºÎ¿¡
´ëÇØ ¸Å¿ì °æ°èÇÏ¿´´Ù. ÁÖ·Î ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ¼ºÇ° Å¿À¸·Î, SSS´Â
°íµµ·Î ºÐ»êȵǾú´Ù. ±¹°¡ »ç·ÉºÎÀÇ Áöµµ¾Æ·¡¿¡, ´ëü
º¹¹«´Â ´ëüÀûÀ¸·Î Áö¿øÀÚµé·Î ±¸¼ºµÇ¾ú´Ù. Áö¿ª
À§¿øÈ¸µéÀº ÁÖÁö»çÀÇ Ã¥ÀÓÀÌÁö ±¹°¡ »ç·ÉºÎÀÇ
Ã¥ÀÓÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï¾ú´Ù. Á¦2Â÷ ¼¼°è´ëÀü µ¿¾È Hershey´Â
Áö¿ª À§¿øÈ¸µéÀÌ "¿ì¸®°¡
³»¸®´Â 99%ÀÇ Àϵ鿡 ÁÖÀǸ¦
±â¿ïÀÏ Çʿ䰡 ¾ø´Ù... ±×·²
Çʿ䰡 ¾øÀ½Àº ÁÁÀº ÀÏÀÌ´Ù"¶ó°í
ÀÚ¶ûÇÏ¿´´Ù. Hershey´Â óÀ½¿¡ SSSÀÇ
¹Î°£ ±¹ÀåÀÇ ºÎ°üÀ̾ú´Ù. 1941³â
±¹ÀåÀÌ »çÀÓÇÏÀÚ Hershey°¡ ±×
ÀÚ¸®¿¡ ÀÓ¸íµÇ¾úÀ¸¸ç, ±×´Â ±× ÀÚ¸®¸¦ 1970³â
ÃʱîÁö ¸Ó¹°·¯ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. Hershey´Â
ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ¼¼¼ÓÀû ¹× ±º»çÀû ¹è°æ¿¡µµ ºÒ±¸Çϰí, ¿ÀÈ÷·Á
¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¿¡ ´ëÇØ °ü¿ëÀûÀ̾úÀ¸¸ç, À§¿øÈ¸µé¿¡°Ô
¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀڵ鿡 ´ëÇØ µ¿µîÇÏ°Ô ´ë¿ìÇÒ °ÍÀ»
Áö½ÃÇÏ¿´´Ù. Hershey¿¡°Ô
ÀÖ¾î¼, ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ´Â ¿ì¸®ÀÇ ¹ÎÁÖÁÖÀǰ¡ ±¹°¡Àû ºñ»ó
½Ã±â¿¡ ¼Ò¼öµéÀÇ ±Ç¸®µé º¸ÀåÇÒ ¸¸Å ¼ºÀåÇÏ¿´´ÂÁö
¾Ë¾Æ³»±â À§ÇÔ¿¡ ÀÖ¾î¼... ¹ÎÁÖÁÖÀÇÀÇ
½ÇÇè"À̾ú´Ù. Hershey
Àڽŵµ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀ» µ½±â À§ÇØ ½º½º·ÎÀÇ ¸òÀ»
¸Ã¾Ò´Ù. Hershey µî·ÏÀÚ¿¡¿¡
Çã¿ëµÇ´Â ¸¶Áö¸· ´Ü°èÀÇ Ç׼ҷμ, ´ëÅë·É Ç×¼Ò
À§¿øÈ¸¸¦ ¿î¿µÇÏ¿´´Ù. ÀÌ À§¿øÈ¸´Â Áö¿ª À§¿øÈ¸µé
º¸´Ùµµ CO ºÐ·ùµéÀ» ÀÎÁ¤ÇÔ¿¡¼ ÇöÀúÈ÷ ´õ¿í
°ü´ëÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¿ÀÁ÷ ´ëÅë·É À§¿øÈ¸¿¡ Ç×¼ÒÇÏ´Â µî·ÏÀÚµé
Áß¿¡¼ ¿ÀÁ÷ ¾à 10%¸¸ÀÌ (º´¿ª¿¡ ÀûÇÕÇÑ)I-Aµî±ÞÀ»
¹Þ¾ÒÀ¸¸ç, ¹Ý¸é¿¡ Áö¿ª À§¿øÈ¸µéÀº ´ç½ÃÀÇ 75% ÀÌ»ó¿¡
´ëÇÑ CO ÁÖÀåµéÀ» °ÅºÎÇÏ¿´´Ù. ÀÌ·± Â÷ÀÌ´Â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ
»ç¾ÈÀ» ¿©·¯ °ãÀÇ Ç×¼Ò °úÁ¤À» ÅëÇÏ¿© ²ø°í°¥ ¸¸Å
¿Ï°ÇÑ µî·ÏÀÚ´Â ¾Æ¸¶µµ Áö¿ª À§¿øÈ¸ ¼öÁغ¸´Ù´Â
´ëÅë·É À§¿øÈ¸¿¡ ÀÇÇØ¼ Á»´õ Áø½ÇÇÔÀ¸·Î ºñÃçÁø´Ù´Â
ÀϺΠ»ç½Ç¿¡ ±âÀÎÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×·¯ÇÔ¿¡µµ ºÒ±¸Çϰí, Hershey¿Í
´ëÅë·É Ç×¼Ò À§¿øÈ¸´Â Áö¿ª À§¿øÈ¸µé º¸´Ùµµ ¸í¹éÈ÷
ÈξÀ ´õ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀڵ鿡°Ô °ü¿ëÀûÀ̾ú´Ù. Hershey´Â
¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚ ÇÁ·Î±×·¥ÀÇ ¼º°ø¿¡ ´ëÇØ ÀÚ¶û½º·¯¿ö
Çϸç, ´ÙÀ½°ú °°ÀÌ ±â·ÏÇß´Ù, "¿ì¸®´Â
¿À´Ã³¯ ÀûÀº ¼Ò¼öÀÚµéÀÌ ¾ç½ÉÀÇ ÀÚÀ¯¸¦ ´©¸± ¼ö ÀÖÀ¸¸ç,
±×µéÀÇ ½Å³äÀ» ÀÌÀ¯·Î °Á¦ ¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡ °¤È÷Áö ¾Ê´Â
¼¼»ó¿¡ »ì°í ÀÖ´Ù." HersheyÀÇ
ŵµ´Â ±º Àå±³µéÀº Â÷Ä¡Çϰí¶óµµ, ¸¹Àº Á¤ºÎ
°ü¸®µé°ú´Â »ó´çÈ÷ ´Þ¶ú´Ù. ±×·¯³ª, ºÐ·ùÀÇ ¼º°ø¿¡µµ
ºÒ±¸Çϰí, ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ´Â Á¦2Â÷ ¼¼°è´ëÀü µ¿¾È ½É°¢ÇÑ
¹®Á¦µéÀ» µå·¯³»¾ú´Ù. ±º´ë¿¡ µé¾î°¡±â¸¦ °ÅºÎÇÑ
¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀº ¹Î°£ ºÀ»ç ¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡¼ ºÀ»çÇϵµ·Ï
ÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, À̰ÍÀº Hershey°¡
ÀÚ¶û½º·¯ÀÌ ÇÇÇØ°¬À¸¸ç ÀϺΠ°ÅºÎÀÚµéÀÌ "°Á¦
¼ö¿ë¼Ò"¿Í »ó´çÈ÷ À¯»çÇÑ °ÍÀ¸·Î ¿©±â´ø
°÷À̾ú´Ù.
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"±¹°¡Àû Á߿伺ÀÇ ÀÓ¹«"
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The Selective Service, and the C.O.s themselves, wished
to avoid the problems of WWI. Only
those C.O.s who wished to perform non-combatant service were inducted into the
military. The
rest, some 12,000 men, were assigned to jobs, as the 1940 law provided, in
"work of national importance
under civilian direction."17
For some, this meant working in hospitals or as
"guinea pigs"
for medical research.18
Service (CPS). But for most, "work of national
importance" meant the Civilian Public Conscientious objectors were sent to one of a
number of CPS camps across the country. The camps were a joint venture of the S.S.S. and
the historic peace churches.19
Although the church groups provided financial support, the
Selective Service was in charge of the CPS operation.20
The camps, many of them located at former Civilian
Conservation Corps camps, produced
over eight million man-days of labor throughout the war.21
The men were not paid for their labor, and in fact, many, if they could
afford it, were asked to contribute to the CPS camps.22
The CPS camps proved almost as troublesome as the
WWI military arrangement. The churches
and the S.S.S. often came into conflict, largely because although the churches
paid for CPS, they had little control over its operation.23
Many C.O.s also were unhappy with the camps, mainly because they were asked "to pay $30 a
month out of their own pocket for the privilege of working for nothing."24
This arrangement even led the American Civil
Liberties Union to denounce the
camps by accusing the government of placing C.O.s beneath prisoners of war,
convicts, and enemy
aliens because those groups were paid for their forced labor.25
Many also felt that CPS was not under "civilian control," as the law
had dictated. Much of how the men viewed CPS depended on their religious
affiliation.26 The Mennonites, especially, were noted for being
supportive. Many local residents
particularly resented having CPS camps in their area. The Lincoln County [Oregon] Times
printed an editorial asking:
So WHY are these Conscientious Objectors with the
JITTERBUG COMPLEX allowed to go out, drink and publicly flount [sic]
their draft status in front of hundreds of people who have Dear Ones in the
Uniform of These United States?27
One local resident wanted them moved "back in
the interior like they do [with] the Japs."28
¡¡
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´ëü º¹¹«, ±×¸®°í COµé ½º½º·Î°¡ WWIÀÇ ¹®Á¦µéÀ» ÇÇÇϰí
½Í¾îÇß´Ù. ºñÀüÅõ¿øÀ¸·Î¼ÀÇ º¹¹«¸¦ ¼öÇàÇϰíÀÚ ÇÏ´Â COµé¸¸ÀÌ
±º´ë·Î ¡ÁýµÇ¾ú´Ù. ³ª¸ÓÁö´Â, ¾à 12,000¸í Á¤µµ·Î¼, 1940³âÀÇ
¹ý·üÀÌ ±ÔÁ¤ÇÑ ´ë·Î, ¹Î°£ÀÎÀÇ ÁöÈ־Ʒ¡ ÀÖ´Â "±¹°¡Àû
Á߿伺À» Áö´Ñ ÀÓ¹«"¿¡ ¹èÄ¡µÇ¾ú´Ù. ÀϺο¡°Ô
ÀÖ¾î¼, À̰ÍÀº º´¿øµé¿¡¼ ±Ù¹«ÇÔ ¶Ç´Â "ÀÇÇÐ
¿¬±¸"ÀÇ ½ÇÇè¿ëÀ¸·Î¼¸¦ ÀǹÌÇß´Ù. ¶Ç´Â ±×·¯³ª
´ëüÀûÀ¸·Î, "±¹°¡Àû Á߿伺À» Áö´Ñ ÀÓ¹«"
¹Î°£ÀÇ °øÀÍÀû ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀÌ Àü±¹¿¡ ÀÖ´Â CPS
¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡ º¸³»Á³À½À» ÀǹÌÇÑ´Ù. ¼ö¿ë¼Ò´Â SSS¿Í ¿ª»çÀû
ÆòÈ ±³È¸µéÀÇ ÇÕÀÛ »ç¾÷À̾ú´Ù. ºñ·Ï ±³È¸ ´ÜüµéÀÌ
ÀçÁ¤Àû Áö¿øÀ» Á¦°øÇÏ¿´Áö¸¸, ´ëü º¹¹«°¡ CPS ¿î¿µÀ»
Ã¥ÀÓÁö°í ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ¼ö¿ë¼ÒµéÀº, ±× ÁßÀÇ ¸¹Àº °÷ÀÌ
°ú°ÅÀÇ ¹Î°£ º¸È£ ¿©´Ü ¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡ À§Ä¡Çϰí ÀÖ¾úÀ¸¸ç,
ÀüÀï Áß¿¡ 800¸¸ÀÎÀÏÀÇ ³ëµ¿À» ÇØ³»¾ú´Ù. ±×µéÀÇ ³ëµ¿¿¡
´ëÇØ º¸¼ö´Â ¾ø¾úÀ¸¸ç, »ç½Ç, ¸¸ÀÏ ±×µéÀÌ º¸¼ö¸¦ ¹ÞÀ»
¼ö ÀÖ´Ù°í ÇÏ´õ¶óµµ, ¸¹Àº »ç¶÷µéÀº CPS ¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡ ±âºÎÇÒ
°ÍÀÌ °¿äµÇ¾ú´Ù. CPS ¼ö¿ë¼Ò´Â WWIÀÇ ±º»ç Á¦µµ ¸¸ÅÀ̳ª
¹®Á¦°¡ ¸¹¾Ò´Ù. ±³È¸µé°ú SSS´Â Á¾Á¾ Ãæµ¹ÇÏ¿´´Âµ¥, ±×
ÀÌÀ¯´Â ÁÖ·Î ºñ·Ï ±³È¸°¡ CPS¿¡ ÁöºÒÇÏ¿´Áö¸¸ ±×µéÀÌ ±×
¿î¿µ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÅëÁ¦±ÇÀÌ °ÅÀÇ ¾ø¾ú±â ¶§¹®À̾ú´Ù. ¸¹Àº COµéµµ
¿ª½Ã ¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡ ºÒ¸¸À̴µ¥, ±× ÀÌÀ¯´Â ÁÖ·Î ±×µéÀÌ ¾Æ¹«
º¸»ó ¾øÀÌ ÀÏÇÔ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Æ¯±Ç¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿© ±×µé ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ
ÁÖ¸Ó´Ï¿¡¼ ¸Å´Þ 30´Þ·¯¸¦ ÁöºÒÇϵµ·Ï µÇ¾î ÀÖ¾ú±â
¶§¹®À̾ú´Ù. ÀÌ·± Á¦µµ´Â ½ÉÁö¾î, ±× Áý´ÜµéÀÌ ±×µéÀÇ
°Á¦ ³ëµ¿¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ´ñ°¡¸¦ ÃëÇϱ⠶§¹®¿¡, ¹Ì±¹
½Ã¹ÎÀÚÀ¯¿¬ÇÕÀÌ Á¤ºÎ°¡ COµéÀ» ÀüÀï ¹üÁËÀÚ, Á˼ö, ¹×
Àû±¹ÀÇ ¿Ü±¹Àεé ÀÌÇÏ·Î Ãë±ÞÇϰí ÀÖ´Ù°í ºñ³ÇÔÀ¸·Î½á
¼ö¿ë¼Ò¸¦ °í¹ßÇϵµ·Ï ¸¸µé¾ú´Ù. ¸¹Àº »ç¶÷µéÀº ¶ÇÇÑ CPS°¡
¹ý·üÀÌ ±ÔÁ¤ÇÑ ´ë·Î "¹Î°£ÀÇ ÅëÁ¦"ÇÏ¿¡ ÀÖÁö
¾Ê´Ù°í ´À²¼´Ù. CPS¸¦ ¾î¶»°Ô ¹Ù¶óº¸´Â°¡ÀÇ ´ëºÎºÐÀº
Á¾±³Àû ¿¬´ë¿¡ ´Þ·Á ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ƯÈ÷ ¸Þ³ëÆÄµéÀº À̸¦
ÁöÁöÇÔÀ¸·Î¼ ¾Ë·ÁÁ³´Ù. ¸¹Àº Áö¿ª ÁֹεéÀº CPS
¼ö¿ë¼Ò°¡ ±×µé Áö¿ª¿¡ ÀÖ´Ù´Â °Í¿¡ ƯÈ÷ ºÐ³ëÇÏ¿´´Ù.
¿À·¹°ïÀÇ ¸µÄÁ Ä«¿îƼÀÇ
TimesÁö´Â ´ÙÀ½°ú °°ÀÌ
Áú¹®ÇÏ´Â »ç¼³À» ½Ç¾ú´Ù: ±×·±µ¥ ¿Ö ÀÌµé ¾ç½ÉÀû
°ÅºÎÀÚµéÀÌ ¹ÛÀ¸·Î ³ª¿Í¼,
¸¶½Ã¸ç, ¹ÌÇÕÁß±¹ÀÇ Á¦º¹À»
ÀÔÀº ¾ÖÁöÁßÁöÇÏ´Â ÀÚ³àµéÀ» °¡Áø ¼ö¹éÀÇ »ç¶÷µé
¾Õ¿¡¼ °ø°ø¿¬È÷ ±×µéÀÇ Â¡º´ µî±ÞÀ» »Ë³»µµ·Ï
Çã¿ëÇϴ°¡? ÇÑ Áö¿ª ÁÖ¹ÎÀº ±×µéÀÌ "ÀϺ»Àεéó·³
³»ºÎ¿¡ ¹°·¯¼" Àֱ⸦
Èñ¸ÁÇß´Ù.
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¿©·Ð
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Despite some animosity towards the CPS camps, it
appears that the public tolerated conscientious
objectors during WWII. Unlike both the Civil War and World War I, conscientious objectors to World War II did not face as much
violence or discrimination. Two
studies of public attitudes towards conscientious objection, both by Leo Crespi,
were published
during the war.29
Crespi expected to find significant hostility
towards conscientious objectors, much like they experienced in previous
conflicts.30
Instead he found that in both surveys, one of Princeton students and the other of
the general public, the public had no great animosity towards conscientious
objectors.31
Fifty percent of the Princeton group said they
would not
discriminate against C.O.s at all, even to the point of "accepting them as
close relatives by marriage."32
In general, the more participation a C.O. took in
the war effort, the more they were approved of.33
For example, a non-combatant C.O. serving in the
military was held in higher esteem
than one serving in a CPS camp. As one might expect, political liberals tended
to approve more
of C.O.s than did political conservatives.34
In his second study, Crespi noted that people with higher educational levels tended to be more
favorable towards C.O.s than those with limited educational backgrounds.35
Still, with all educational groups taken together,
Crespi concluded that the
public was tolerant toward C.O.s personally, and somewhat tolerant of C.O.
principles.36
There were some incidents of discrimination against
C.O.s. During WWII, a former C.O. re- applied for a teaching position in
Kentucky.37
He was denied this position. Assistant Attorney General W. Owen Keller of Kentucky, the man who
ruled on this incident, said The
fact that the individual in question has served a term in a concentration camp
set aside for persons such as he, indicates that at least he has been guilty of
an offense involving moral turpitude, and that his conduct has been such that an
orderly society must remove him temporarily from circulation.38
In another incident, a group of Mennonite C.O.s from central Kansas were
harassed and beaten by a
group of draftees. The draftees were charged, but fined only a small amount for
the fight.39
¡¡
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CPS ¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÀϺΠÁõ¿À½É¿¡µµ ºÒ±¸Çϰí, WWII µ¿¾È
´ëÁßÀº ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀ» °ü´ëÈ÷ ¿©±â´Â °Íó·³
º¸ÀδÙ. ³»Àü ¹× Á¦1Â÷ ¼¼°è´ëÀü°ú´Â ´Þ¸®, Á¦2Â÷
¼¼°è´ëÀü¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀº ±×ó·³ ¸¹Àº
Æø·ÂÀ̳ª Â÷º°À» ¸ÂÀÌÇÏÁö´Â ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¿¡
´ëÇÑ ´ëÁßµéÀÇ Åµµµé¿¡ °üÇÑ µÎ°¡ÁöÀÇ ¿¬±¸µéÀÌ
Leo Crespi¿¡ ÀÇÇØ ÀüÀï Áß¿¡
¹ßÇàµÇ¾ú´Ù. Crespi´Â,
ÀÌÀüÀÇ ÀüÀïµé¿¡¼ ±×µéÀÌ °æÇèÇÑ ¹Ù¿Í °°ÀÌ,
¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀڵ鿡 ´ëÇÏ¿© »ó´çÇÑ Àû´ë°¨À» ¹ß°ßÇÒ
°ÍÀ¸·Î ¿¹»óÇÏ¿´´Ù. ´ë½Å¿¡ ±×´Â µÎ°¡Áö Á¶»ç, Áï
Çϳª´Â ÇÁ¸°½ºÅæÀÇ Çлýµé ±×¸®°í ´Ù¸¥ Çϳª´Â ÀϹÝ
´ëÁߵ鿡¼, ´ëÁßµéÀº ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀڵ鿡 ´ëÇÏ¿©
¾Æ¹«·± Ä¿´Ù¶õ Áõ¿À½Éµµ °¡Áö°í ÀÖÁö ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù´Â °ÍÀ»
¾Ë¾Æ³Â´Ù. ÇÁ¸°½ºÅæ ±×·ìÀÇ 50%´Â ±×µéÀº COµé¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿©
ÀüÇô Â÷º°À» ÇÏÁö ¾ÊÀ» °ÍÀ̸ç, ½ÉÁö¾î´Â °áÈ¥À» ÅëÇÏ¿©
±×µé°ú ¹ÐÁ¢ÇÑ Ä£Ã´À¸·Î ¹Þ¾Æ µéÀ̱â±îÁö ÇÒ °ÍÀ̶ó°í
¸»Çß´Ù. ÀϹÝÀûÀ¸·Î, ÀüÀï ³ë·Â¿¡¼ COÀÇ Âü¿©°¡ ¸¹À¸¸é
¸¹À» ¼ö·Ï, ±×µéÀº ´õ¿í ÀÎÁ¤¹Þ¾Ò´Ù. ¿¹¸¦ µé¸é ±º´ë¿¡¼ º¹¹«ÇÏ´Â ºñÀüÅõ¿øÀº CPS ¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡¼ ºÀ»çÇÏ´Â »ç¶÷º¸´Ù ÈξÀ Á¸Áß¹Þ¾Ò´Ù.
¿¹»óµÇ´Â ÀÏÀÌÁö¸¸, Á¤Ä¡Àû ÀÚÀ¯ÁÖÀÇÀÚµéÀÌ Á¤Ä¡Àû º¸¼öÁÖÀÇÀڵ麸´Ùµµ ´õ CO¸¦ ÀÎÁ¤ÇÏ´Â °æÇâÀÌ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù.
CrespiÀÇ µÎ ¹øÂ° ¿¬±¸¿¡¼, Crespi´Â ³ôÀº ±³À°Àû ¼öÁØÀ» Áö´Ñ »ç¶÷µéÀÌ Á¦ÇѵÈ
±³À°Àû ¹è°æÀ» °¡Áø »ç¶÷µéº¸´Ùµµ CO¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿© Á»´õ È£ÀÇÀûÀ̾ú´Ù.
¾î·µç,
¸ðµç
±³À°Àû
±×·ìµéÀ»
ÇÔ²²
°í·ÁÇϰǴë,
´ëÁßµéÀº °³ÀÎÀûÀ¸·Î COµé¿¡ ´ëÇØ °ü¿ëÀûÀ̾úÀ¸¸ç, COÀÇ ¿øÄ¢µéÀ» °ü¿ëÇÏ´Â ÆíÀ̾ú´Ù. COµé¿¡ ´ëÇØ ÀϺΠÂ÷º°ÀûÀÎ »ç°Çµéµµ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù.
Á¦2Â÷ ¼¼°è´ëÀü µ¿¾È, °ú°ÅÀÇ CO°¡ ÄËÅÍŰÁÖ¿¡¼ ±³À°Á÷¿¡ Àç½ÅûÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×´Â ÀÌ Á÷À§¿¡ °ÅÀýµÇ¾ú´Ù. ÄËÅÍŰÁÖÀÇ ¹ý¹«Â÷°ü
W. Owen Keller´Â ÀÌ »ç°ÇÀ» °áÁ¤Çϸé¼, ¹®Á¦ ´ç»çÀÚ°¡ ±×¿Í °°Àº »ç¶÷µéÀ» À§ÇØ
³»Á¤µÈ ¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡¼ ÀÏÁ¤ ±â°£ º¹¹«ÇÏ¿´´Ù´Â »ç½ÇÀº Àû¾îµµ ±×°¡ µµ´öÀûÀÎ ºñ¿ÇÔÀ» Æ÷ÇÔÇÏ´Â ¹üÁË¿¡ À¯ÁËÀÓÀ» °¡¸®Å°´Â °ÍÀ̸ç, ±×ÀÇ ÇàÀ§¿¡
´ëÇÏ¿© Áú¼ÀÖ´Â »çȸ´Â ¹Ýµå½Ã ÀáÁ¤ÀûÀ¸·Î ±×ÀÇ Ã¤¿ëÀ» ¸·¾Æ¾ß ÇÑ´Ù°í ¸»Çß´Ù. ´Ù¸¥ »ç°Ç¿¡¼´Â, ÁߺΠÄ˻罺 Ãâ½ÅÀÇ ¸Þ³ëÆÄ
CO Áý´ÜÀÌ ÀÏ´ÜÀÇ Â¡º´Àڵ鿡 ÀÇÇÏ¿© Çдë´çÇÏ°í ÆøÇà´çÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¡º´ÀÚµéÀº ±â¼ÒµÇ¾úÁö¸¸, ´ÜÁö ½Î¿ò¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿© ¾à°£ÀÇ ¹ú±Ý¸¸ ¹°¾úÀ»
»ÓÀÌ´Ù. |
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¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Á¾±³°èÀÇ ¹ÝÀÀ
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Of the 12,000 conscientious objectors assigned to
work in CPS camps, the Selective Service was able to obtain religious information on all but
776 men.40
As one might expect, many C.O.s came from historic peace churches. The Mennonites
contributed 4,610 men to CPS, making it the largest single religious group in CPS. Other peace
churches trailed behind, with 1,468 Brethren and 902 Quakers. Smaller pacifist groups also had a
high number of C.O.s, like the 532 Jehovah's Witnesses and 136 Christadelphians. Some of the
larger mainstream Protestant groups also had a number of C.O.s:Methodist (845), Baptist (243),
Presbyterian (235), Church of Christ (220), Congregationalist (204), Church of God (154), and
Lutheran (124).41 America's largest
church, the
Roman Catholic Church, had only 162 C.O.s.42 Because of their long history of rejecting war, the
high number of historic peace church C.O.s is not surprising. But not every young man in
these pacifist churches took the C.O. route. About half of eligible Mennonite young men entered
the military, either as combatants or as non- combatant C.O.s.43
Mennonites who were farther away from the
traditional Mennonite community
tended to eschew the C.O. option in favor of military service.44
Men who made such a decision contrary to the teaching of the church
were often ostracized. Just four years after the war, less than one third of Mennonite men who had
served in the military remained in the church.45
¡¡
¡¡
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CPS ¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡¼ ÀÏÇϵµ·Ï ¹èÄ¡µÈ 12,000¸íÀÇ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚµé Áß¿¡¼, ´ëü º¹¹«´Â ´ÜÁö 776¸í¿¡ ´ëÇØ¼¸¸ Á¾±³Àû Á¤º¸¸¦ ¾òÀ»
¼ö ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ¿¹»ó´ë·Î, ¸¹Àº COµéÀº ¿ª»çÀû Æòȱ³È¸·ÎºÎÅÍ ³ª¿Ô´Ù. ¸Þ³ëÆÄ´Â 4,610¸íÀ» CPS¿¡ º¸³ÂÀ¸¸ç, CPS¿¡¼ °¡Àå Å«
À¯ÀÏÀÇ Á¾±³Àû Áý´ÜÀ̾ú´Ù. ´Ù¸¥ ÆòÈ ±³È¸µéÀº µÚ¸¦ À̾úÀ¸¸ç, ÇüÁ¦´Ü¿¡¼ 1,468¸í, ÄùÀÌÄ¿¿¡¼ 902¸íÀ̾ú´Ù. Á»´õ ÀÛÀº ÆòÈ
Áý´Üµé ¿ª½Ã ¸¹Àº ¼öÀÇ COµéÀ» Æ÷ÇÔÇϰí ÀÖ¾úÀ¸¸ç, ¿©È£¿ÍÀÇ ÁõÀεéÀÌ 532¸í, ±×¸®½ºµµ ÇüÁ¦´ÜÀÌ 136¸íÀ̾ú´Ù. ÀϺΠ´ë±Ô¸ð ÁÖ·ùÀÇ
°³½Å±³ Áý´Üµéµµ ¿ª½Ã ´Ù¼öÀÇ COµéÀ» Æ÷ÇÔÇÏ¿´´Âµ¥, °¨¸®±³(845), ħ·Ê±³(243), Àå·Î±³(235), ±×¸®½ºµµÀÇ ±³È¸(220),
ȸÁß±³È¸(204), Çϳª´ÔÀÇ ±³È¸(154), ¹× ·çÅͱ³(124)µîÀÌ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ¹Ì±¹ÀÇ °¡Àå Å« ±³´ÜÀÎ ·Î¸¶ Ä«Å縯 ±³È¸´Â ´ÜÁö
162¸íÀÇ CO¸¦ Æ÷ÇÔÇϰí ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ÆòÈ ±³È¸´Â ÀüÀïÀ» °ÅºÎÇÔ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ±×µéÀÇ ¿À·£ ¿ª»ç ¶§¹®¿¡ ¿ª»çÀû ÆòÈ ±³È¸ÀÇ COÀÇ ¼ýÀÚ°¡
¸¹À½À» ³î¶ó¿î ÀÏÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï´Ù. ±×·¯³ª ÀÌµé ÆòÈ ±³È¸µéÀÇ ¸ðµç ÀþÀºÀÌµé ¸ðµÎ°¡ COÀÇ ±æÀ» °£ °ÍÀº ¾Æ´Ï´Ù. ÇØ´ç ³ªÀÌÀÇ ¸Þ³ëÆÄ
û³âµéÀÇ ¾à Àý¹Ý °¡·®Àº ÀüÅõ¿øÀ̳ª ºñÀüÅõ¿øÀÎ CO·Î¼ ±º´ë¿¡ ÀÔ´ëÇÏ¿´´Ù. ÀüÅëÀûÀÎ ¸Þ³ëÆÄ °øµ¿Ã¼¿¡¼ ¸Ö¸® ¶³¾îÁ® ÀÖ´ø ¸Þ³ëÆÄµéÀº
º´¿ªÀ» ÅÃÇÔÀ¸·Î¼ CO ¼±ÅÃÀ» ȸÇÇÇÏ´Â °æÇâÀÌ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ±³È¸ÀÇ °¡¸£Ä§¿¡ ¹Ý´ëµÇ´Â ±×·¯ÇÑ °áÁ¤À» ³»¸° »ç¶÷µéÀº °¡²û Ãß¹æµÇ¾ú´Ù. ÀüÀï
ÈÄ ¿ÀÁ÷ 4 ³â µÚ¿¡, ±º´ë¿¡ º¹¹«ÇÑ ¸Þ³ëÆÄ »ç¶÷µé Áß Ã¤ »ïºÐÀÇ ÀÏÀÌ ¾ÈµÇ´Â Àڵ鸸ÀÌ ±³È¸¿¡ ³²¾Æ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù.
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ÀüÈÄ ½Ã±â
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After the war the public wanted the draft to stop,
military leaders wished to form a voluntary
army, and President Truman supported a Universal Military Training plan.
Congress allowed
conscription to lapse in 1947. But the events of the Cold War encouraged
Congress to re- instate
the draft the next year.46
In 1951 the Department of Defense first provided
for in-service conscientious objectors.47
Such objectors could be transferred to non-combat
positions. Eleven years later, a provision was enacted that allowed in-service conscientious
objectors to be honorably discharged from the military.48
The military operated this program under the same
rules as the Selective Service System,
and future changes in the S.S.S. operation were also mirrored in the military.49
Neither the Selective Service nor C.O. advocates
wished to return to the WWII CPS system.
But simply deferring C.O.s was not a popular choice either. One Montana draft
board even
resigned to protest the deferment of C.O.s.50
The solution came with the Universal Military Training and Service Act of 1951, which allowed
C.O.s to perform "work of national importance" under the direction of the local draft
boards.51
The work program was implemented on July 1, 1952.52
The draft boards had the power to assign C.O.s to a
particular job, although most C.O.s found
alternate work without assistance.53
Through alternate service C.O.s did their duty to America by working in hospitals, religious
organizations, and any number of other jobs. ¡¡
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ÀüÀï ÈÄ ´ëÁßÀº ¡º´ÀÌ ÁߴܵDZ⸦ ¿øÇßÀ¸¸ç, ±º»ç ÁöµµÀÚµéÀº ÀÚ¿ø ÀÔ´ë¿¡ ÀÇÇÑ ±º´ë¸¦ ±¸¼ºÇϱ⸦ Èñ¸ÁÇÏ¿´°í, Æ®·ç¸¸ ´ëÅë·ÉÀº [º¸ÆíÀû
±º»ç ÈÆ·Ã] °èȹÀ» ÁöÁöÇÏ¿´´Ù. ÀÇȸ´Â 1947³â ¡ÁýÀÌ ³¡³¯ °ÍÀ» Çã¿ëÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×·¯³ª ³ÃÀüÀÇ »ç°ÇµéÀº ÀÇȸ·Î ÇÏ¿©±Ý ´ÙÀ½ ÇØ¿¡
¡º´À¸·Î ȸ±ÍÇϵµ·Ï ¸¸µé¾ú´Ù. 1951³â ±¹¹æºÎ´Â óÀ½À¸·Î º¹¹«ÁßÀÎ ÀÚ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚ¿¡ ´ëÇØ ±ÔÁ¤ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×·¯ÇÑ °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀº
ºñÀüÅõ¿øÀÇ À§Ä¡·Î Àüº¸µÉ ¼ö ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. 11³â µÚ¿¡, Çö¿ªÀÇ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀڵ鿡°Ô ¸í¿¹½º·´°Ô Á¦´ëÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖµµ·ÏÇÏ´Â Á¶Ç×ÀÌ ½ÇÇàµÇ¾ú´Ù.
±º´ë´Â ÀÌ ÇÁ·Î±×·¥À» ´ëüº¹¹«Á¦µµ¿Í ¶È±ùÀº ¿øÄ¢ ¾Æ·¡¼ ¿î¿µÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, SSS¿¡ ÀÖ¾î¼ ¹Ì·¡ÀÇ º¯Èµéµµ ¶ÇÇÑ ±º´ë¿¡ ¹Ý¿µµÇ¾ú´Ù.
´ëüº¹¹«µµ CO ¿ËÈ£Àڵ鵵 2Â÷¼¼°è´ëÀüÀÇ CPS üÁ¦·Î ȸ±ÍÇÔÀ» ¿øÄ¡¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. ±×·¯³ª ´Ü¼øÈ÷ COµéÀ» À¯¿¹½ÃŰ´Â °ÍÀº ´ëÁßÀûÀÎ ¼±Åõµ
¾Æ´Ï¾ú´Ù. ÇÑ ¸óųªÀÇ Â¡º´ À§¿øÈ¸´Â ½ÉÁö¾î CO¿¡ ´ëÇÑ À¯¿¹¿¡ Ç×ÀÇÇϱâ À§ÇÏ¿© »çÀÓÇϱ⵵ ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ÀÌ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÇØ¹ýÀº
1951³âÀÇ [º¸ÆíÀû ±º»ç ÈÆ·Ã ¹× º¹¹«¹ý]À¸·Î ³ª¿ÔÀ¸¸ç, ¿©±â¼ COµéÀÌ Áö¿ª ¡º´ À§¿øÈ¸µéÀÇ ÁöÈ־Ʒ¡ "±¹°¡Àû Á߿伺À» °¡Áø
¾÷¹«"¸¦ ¼öÇàÇÒ °ÍÀÌ ¿ä±¸µÇ¾ú´Ù. ÀÌ ¾÷¹« ÇÁ·Î±×·¥Àº 1952³â 7¿ù 1ÀÏ ½ÃÇàµÇ¾ú´Ù. ´ëºÎºÐÀÇ COµéÀº µµ¿ò ¾øÀ̵µ ´ëü ¾÷¹«¸¦
ã¾ÒÁö¸¸. ¡º´À§¿øÈ¸µéÀº COµé¿¡°Ô ƯÁ¤ÇÑ Á÷¾÷¿¡ ¹èÄ¡ÇÒ ±ÇÇÑÀ» °¡Áö°Ô µÇ¾ú´Ù. ´ëü º¹¹«¸¦ ÅëÇÏ¿© COÀº º´¿øµé¿¡¼, Á¾±³Àû
´Üüµé¿¡¼, ±×¸®°í ´Ù¸¥ ¼ö¸¹Àº ÀÓ¹«µé¿¡ Á¾»çÇÔÀ¸·Î½á ¹Ì±¹¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ±×µéÀÇ Àǹ«¸¦ ÇàÇÏ¿´´Ù.
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Both the in-service and alternative service programs were initiated during
the Korean War. The
Selective Service had not drafted anyone during 1949, and America's sudden
involvement in Korea
forced a quick re-start of the stalled draft in 1950.54
Because Korea was a "limited" war, it did not require the total mobilization seen during
WWII. Therefore, the S.S.S. played a very different role in Korea. Besides providing over a
million men for the military, the S.S.S. also actively channeled men into occupations through a
complex series of deferments.55
Through the Korean war, the S.S.S. overcame the long-standing
American mistrust of conscription, and the draft became, in the words of historian George
Flynn, "an accepted part of the political landscape."56
The Selective Service delivered about 1.5 million
draftees during the three-year period (fiscal year 1951-1953) of the Korean War.57
Out of that number, only about 25,000 men received
C.O. status
(12,000 in 1950, 8,000 in 1951, and 5,000 in 1952).58
This represented an increase over the WWII rates, but not substantially so. The increase
was likely due to the enactment of a work program instead of CPS camps. After the Korean War, draft calls remained fairly
steady.59 From 1955 until 1966 the
Selective Service did not deliver more than 200,000
men a year.60 Over 16,000 men were classified I-O from 1951 until
1961.61
The majority of these C.O.s were from historic
peace churches, especially
the Mennonite Church.62
The National Service Board for Religious Objectors
(NSBRO, later
the National Interreligious Service Board for Conscientious Objectors [NISBCO]),
reported in 1964 that of 12,410 C.O.s surveyed since the alternate service program began,
nearly 8,500 were Mennonites.
The other pacifist churches, large and small, also contributed a significant
number of men.63
The two largest mainstream churches were the Church
of Christ and the Methodists, with 194
and 165 men, respectively. Other mainstream groups include Presbyterians (38),
Baptists (36),
Episcopalians (18), and Roman Catholics (10).64
During this period, C.O.s were overwhelmingly Christian. The NSBRO reported that
C.O.s came from ninety-eight Christian groups and seven non-Christian religious groups.
Only 1.2 percent of C.O.s listed no religious affiliation.65
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°³ÀÔÀº 1950³â¿¡ ÀÌ¹Ì ÁßÁöµÇ¾ú´ø ¡º´À» ½Å¼ÓÇÏ°Ô ´Ù½Ã ½ÃÀÛÇϵµ·Ï ¸¸µé¾ú´Ù. Çѱ¹ÀÇ °æ¿ì´Â Á¦ÇÑÀû" ÀüÀïÀ̾úÀ¸¹Ç·Î, Á¦2Â÷¼¼°è´ëÀü
´ç½Ã¿¡ º¸¿´´ø ÀüüÀû µ¿¿øÀ» ¿ä±¸ÇÏÁö´Â ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. ±×·¯¹Ç·Î SSS´Â Çѱ¹ÀÇ °æ¿ì ¸Å¿ì »óÈ÷ÇÑ ¿ªÇÒÀ» ´ã´çÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±º´ë¸¦ À§ÇØ ¹é¸¸ÀÌ
³Ñ´Â ÀοøµéÀ» Á¦°øÇÏ¿´À» »Ó¸¸ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó, SSS´Â ¶ÇÇÑ º¹ÀâÇÑ À¯¿¹µéÀ» ÅëÇÏ¿© ÀοøµéÀ» Àû±ØÀûÀ¸·Î Á÷¾÷µé¿¡ ¿¬°áÇÏ¿´´Ù. Çѱ¹ÀüÀ»
ÅëÇÏ¿©, SSS´Â ¡Áý¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¿À·£ µ¿¾ÈÀÇ ¹Ì±¹ÀεéÀÇ ºÒ½ÅÀ» ±Øº¹ÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, ¡ÁýÀº, ¿ª»ç°¡
George FlynnÀÇ ¸»¿¡ µû¸£¸é, "Á¤Ä¡ dz°æ¿¡¼ ÀÎÁ¤µÈ ÀϺΰ¡" µÇ¾ú´Ù. ´ëü º¹¹«´Â Çѱ¹Àü »ï³â µ¿¾È (ȸ°è³âµµ
1951-1953)¾à 1¹é 5½Ê¸¸ÀÇ Â¡º´ÀÚ¸¦ À̲ø¾î ³»¾ú´Ù. ±× ¼ýÀÚµé Áß¿¡¼, ¿ÀÁ÷ 25,000¸íÀÌ COµî±ÞÀ» ¹Þ¾Ò´Ù (1950³â
¿¡ 12,000¸í, 1951³â¿¡ 8,000¸í). À̰ÍÀº 2Â÷ ¼¼°è´ëÀüÀÇ ºñÀ²¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿© »ó½ÂÇÑ °ÍÀÌÁö¸¸, »ó´çÈ÷ Áõ°¡ÇÑ °ÍÀº ¾Æ´Ï´Ù.
±× Áõ°¡´Â CPS ¼ö¿ë¼Òµé ´ë½ÅÀ¸·Î ÇàÇÑ ÀÓ¹« ÇÁ·Î±×·¥À» ½ÃÇàÀ» Åë·¡¼¶ó°í ÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù. Çѱ¹ ÀüÀïÀÌ ³¡³ µÚ, ¡º´ ¼ÒÁýÀº »ó´çÈ÷
²ÙÁØÈ÷ À̾îÁ³´Ù. 1955³â¿¡¼ 1966³â ±îÁö ´ëü º¹¹«´Â ³â°£ 200,000¸í ÀÌ»óÀº ÀεµÇÏÁö ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. 1951³â ºÎÅÍ 1961³â
±îÁö 16,000¸íÀÌ I-O·Î ºÐ·ùµÇ¾ú´Ù. À̵é COÀÇ ´ëºÎºÐÀº ¿ª»çÀû Æòȱ³È¸µé, ƯÈ÷ ¸Þ³ëÆÄ ±³È¸ÀÇ Ãâ½ÅµéÀÌ´Ù. [Á¾±³Àû
°ÅºÎÀÚµéÀ» À§ÇÑ Àü±¹ ºÀ»çȸÀÇ] (NSBRO, ÈÄÀÏ [¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚ¸¦ À§ÇÑ Àü±¹ ¹üÁ¾±³ ºÀ»çȸÀÇ](NISBCO))´Â,
1964³â º¸°íÇϱ⸦, ´ëü º¹¹« ÇÁ·Î±×·¥ÀÌ ½ÃÀÛµÈ ÈÄ Áý°èµÈ 12,410¸íÀÇ COµé Áß¿¡¼ °ÅÀÇ 8,500¸íÀÌ ¸Þ³ëÆÄ¶ó°í ÇÏ¿´´Ù.
±âŸ ÆòÈ ±³È¸µé ¿ª½Ã, Å©´ø ÀÛ´ø, »ó´çÇÑ ¼ýÀÚ°¡ Æ÷ÇԵǾú´Ù. µÎ°³ÀÇ °¡Àå Å« ÁÖ·ù ±³È¸µéÀº ±×¸®½ºµµÀÇ ±³È¸¿Í °¨¸®±³È¸·Î¼, °¢±â
194¸í°ú 165¸íÀ̾ú´Ù. ´Ù¸¥ ÁÖ·ù ´ÜüµéÀº Àå·Î±³(38), ħ·Ê±³(36), °¨µ¶±³È¸(18), ¹× ·Î¸¶Ä«Å縯(10) µîÀ̾ú´Ù. ÀÌ
±â°£ µ¿¾È, COµéÀº ¾ÐµµÀûÀ¸·Î ±×¸®½ºµµ±³ÀεéÀ̾ú´Ù. NSBRO´Â º¸°íÇϱ⸦, COµéÀº 99°³ÀÇ ±×¸®½ºµµ±³ ´Üü¿Í 9°³ÀÇ ºñ
±×¸®½ºµµ±³ Á¾±³ ´Üüµé·ÎºÎÅÍ ³ª¿Ô´Ù°í ÇÑ´Ù. ¿ÀÁ÷ 1.2%¸¸ÀÌ ºñ Á¾±³Àû ¿¬´ë·Î ¿Ã¶ó ÀÖ¾ú´Ù.
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°á·Ð
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When America became militarily involved in
Vietnam, the draft was largely the same as it had been in World War II. Except for the changes in
alternate service, the administrative framework provided by the Selective Service was
remarkably unchanged from WWII. Conscientious
objectors were still required to have religious objection to all wars and most
C.O.s had
historic peace church backgrounds. However, the world in which the C.O. found
himself in 1963
was far different from the one in 1940. Conscription was now a fact of life for
young men. America
was engaged in a "cold war" with the Soviet Union, and the U.S. was
about to engage in another
"limited war" in Asia. In the last ten years of conscription
(1963-1973), the nature of conscientious
objection would change a great deal, in large part due to three Supreme Court
cases.
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¹Ì±¹ÀÌ º£Æ®³²°ú ±º»çÀûÀ¸·Î °³ÀԵǾúÀ» ¶§, ¡º´Àº ÁÖ·Î Á¦2Â÷ ¼¼°è´ëÀü¿¡¼ ÀÖ¾ú´ø °Í°ú ¶È°°¾Ò´Ù. ´ëüº¹¹«¿Í °ü·ÃÇÏ¿© º¯ÈµÈ °ÍÀ»
Á¦¿ÜÇϰí´Â, ´ëüº¹¹«¿¡ ÀÇÇØ¼ ±ÔÁ¤µÈ ÇàÁ¤Àû °ñ°ÝÀº Á¦2Â÷¼¼°è´ëÀü°ú µÎ¸£·¯Áö°Ô º¯ÇÑ °ÍÀº ¾ø¾ú´Ù. ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀº ¿©ÀüÈ÷ ¸ðµç
ÀüÀï¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿© Á¾±³ÀûÀ¸·Î °ÅºÎÇÔÀÌ ¿ä±¸µÇ¾ú°í, ´ëºÎºÐÀÇ COµéÀº ¿ª»çÀû Æòȱ³È¸ÀÇ ¹è°æÀ» Áö´Ï°í ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ±×·¯³ª, 1963³â COµéÀÌ
Ã³ÇØÀÖ´ø ¼¼°è´Â 1940³â´ëÀÇ °Í°ú´Â »ç¹µ ´Þ¶ú´Ù. ¡ÁýÀº ÀþÀº »ç¶÷µé¿¡°Ô ÀÖ¾î¼ ÀÌÁ¦ »îÀÇ »ç½ÇÀÇ Çϳª¿´´Ù. ¹Ì±¹Àº ¼Ò·Ã°ú
"³ÃÀü"¿¡ Âü¿©Çϰí ÀÖÀ¸¸ç, ¼Ò·ÃÀº ¾Æ½Ã¿¡¼ ¶Ç ´Ù¸¥ "Á¦ÇÑ Àü"¿¡ °³ÀÔÇÏ·Á Çϰí ÀÖ´Ù. °ú°Å(1963-1973) 10³â µ¿¾ÈÀÇ
¡Áý¿¡¼, ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÇ ¼º°ÝÀº ¾öû³ª°Ô º¯¸ðÇÏ¿´´Âµ¥, ÁÖ·Î ¼¼°¡ÁöÀÇ ´ë¹ý¿ø ÆÇ·Ê ¶§¹®À̾ú´Ù. |
Footnotes
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1. Statutes
at Large 54 (1940):889.
2. Selective
Service System, Conscientious Objector, 315.
3. J.W.
Masland, "Treatment of the Conscientious Objector Under the Selective
Service Act of 1940," American Political
Science Review36 (August, 1942):698 and Leo P. Crespi, "Attitudes
Toward Conscientious Objectors and Some of Their Psychological Correlates,"
Journal of Psychology18 (July, 1944):81.
4. Franklin
Stevens, If This Be Treason(New York:Peter H. Wyden, Inc., 1970), 60.
5. Ibid.,61.
6. V.H.
Whitney, "C.O.'s:Second-class Citizens," Nation161 (December
29, 1945):735-736.
7. E.
Raymond Wilson, "Evolution of the C.O. Provisions in the 1940 Conscription
Bill," Quaker History 64, vol 1 (1975):12.
8. George Q
Flynn, "Lewis Hershey and the Conscientious Objector:The World War II
Experience," Military Affairs 47,
vol. 1 (1983):1, and Wilson, "Evolution," 12.
9. George Q
Flynn, LewisB. Hershey:Mr. Selective Service(Chapel Hill:University of
North Carolina Press, 1985), 221.
10. Flynn, LewisB.
Hershey, 221. In 1970 the S.S.S. reported a total personnel of 51,914. Of
these, 42,997 were "uncompensated
personnel."Nineteen thousand of those volunteers worked at the local board
level. The rest were doctors, advisors, appeal agents, or state board members.
(Selective Service System, Semi-Annual Report of the Director of Selective
Service to the Congress of the United States Pursuant to the Universal Military
Training and Service Act as Amended(Washington, D.C.:U.S. Government
Printing Office, 1970, report 2),47.
11. Flynn,
LewisB. Hershey, 78-79.
12. Ibid.,
75, and Flynn, The Draft,243.
13. Flynn,
"Hershey and the Conscientious Objector," 2.
14. Ibid., 3.
These figures are based on 8,127 cases heard before local boards, and 1,558
cases heard by the presidential appeal
board.
15. Ibid., 4.
16. Ibid., 5.
17. Statutes
at Large 54 (1940):889.
18. Patricia
McNeal, "Catholic Conscientious Objection During World War II," Catholic
Historical Review61, no. 2 (1975):237-238.
19. Although
most of the camps were sponsored by the Quakers, Brethren, and Mennonites, some
mainstream groups did sponsor camps. Those
groups include the Association of Catholic Conscientious Objectors, the American
Baptist Home Missionary Society, the Disciples of Christ, the Commission on
Christian Social Action of the Evangelical Reformed Church, the Methodist World
Peace Commission, and the National Service Board for Religious Objectors.
Selective Service System, Conscientious Objector,176.
20. George Q.
Flynn, "Selective Service and the Conscientious Objector," in Michael
F. Noone, Jr., ed.,Selective Conscientious
Objection: Accommodating Conscience and Security(Boulder, Col.: Westview
Press, 1989), 38.
21. Ibid., 38, and Flynn, "Hershey and the
Conscientious Objector," 4-5.
22. Whitney,
"C.O.'s:Second-class Citizens," 736.
23. Albert
N. Keim, "Mennonites and Selective Service in World War II:An Ambiguous
Relationship," Mennonite Quarterly
Review66 no. 4 (1992):524.
24. Whitney,
"C.O.'s:Second-class Citizens," 736.
25. Ibid.
26. Keim,
"Mennonites and Selective Service," 511.
27. Joyce
Justice, "World War II Civilian Public Conscientious Objector Camps in
Oregon," Prologue 23, no. 3 (1991): 270.
28. Ibid., 267.
29. In one
study at Princeton University, Crespi polled 163 students from March 24-31,
1943. Crespi, "Attitudes Toward
Conscientious Objectors," 84. The second survey was published in four
parts:Leo P. Crespi, "Public Opinion Toward Conscientious Objectors and
some of their Psychological correlates. Journal of Psychology18
(1944):81-117; Leo P. Crespi, "Public Opinion Toward Conscientious
Objectors:II. Measurement of national approval-disproval,"Journal of
Psychology19 (1945):209-250; Leo P. Crespi, "Public Opinion Toward
Conscientious Objectors:III. Intensity of social rejection in stereotype and
attitude,"Journal of Psychology19 (1945):251-276; Leo P. Crespi,
"Public Opinion Toward Conscientious Objectors:IV. Opinions on Significant
Conscientious Objector Issues,"Journal of Psychologyvol. 19 no. 2
(April 1945):277-305.
30. Crespi,
"Attitudes Toward Conscientious Objectors," 82.
31. Ibid., 91. 32Ibid.
33Ibid. 34Ibid., 115-116.
Crespi also tested for differing opinions between religious liberals and
conservatives. He did not find religious
differences to be a factor. 35Crespi,
"Opinions on Significant Conscientious Objector Issues," 277-305. 36Ibid.,
306. 37"Kentucky
Rules Objector Cannot Teach School," Christian Century60 (July 7,
1943):788. 38Statement
of Assistant Attorney General W. Owen Keller of Kentucky in Ibid.
39. Roger
Juhnke, "The Perils of Conscientious Objection," Mennonite Life,
34, no. 3 (1979):4-9.
40. Selective
Service System, Conscientious Objector, 320.
41. These
figures are all found in Ibid., 218. I have only listed groups with 100
or more C.O.s. Some large groups with less
than 100 C.O.s include Episcopal (81), "Hebrew" (50), and Unitarian
(49).
42. Ibid.,
318. According to the S.S.S. (Ibid., 320), in 1936 there were nearly 20
million Catholics in America.
43. Ferry
Bush, "Military Service, Religious Faith, and Acculturation:Mennonite GIs
and their Church, 1941-1945," Mennonite
Quarterly Review67, no. 3
(1993):261-262.
44. Ibid., 265.
45. Keith L.
Sprunger, and John D. Thiesen, "Mennonite Military Service in World War
II:An Oral History Approach,"Mennonite
Quarterly Review66, no. 4 (1992):485.
46. See
chapter 4 of Flynn, The Draft.
47. Department
of Defense Directive No. 1315.1 (June 18, 1951), cited in Palmer, "Time to
Exorcise," 186.
48. Ibid.
49. Ibid. In-service
objectors have always represented a small fraction of the conscientious
objectors. During the Vietnam war years,
in service objectors numbered 30 in 1964, 25 in 1965, 5 in 1966, 9 in 1967, 70
in 1968, 194 in 1969, 357 in 1970, and 879 in 1971. See also Ibid., 196.
50. Flynn,
"Selective Service," in Noone, Selective Conscientious Objection,
41.
51. Statutes
at Large 65 (1951) 86 and Flynn,
"Selective Service," in Noone, Selective Conscientious Objection,
41.
52. "Some
Statistics on CO's and the Draft," The Reporter for Conscience' Sake22
(February, 1965):1.
53. Dirk
W. Eitzen, and Timothy R. Falb, "An Overview of the Mennonite I-W
Program," Mennonite Quarterly Review 56,
no. 4 (1982):368.
54. Flynn,
The Draft, 110.
55. Selective
Service System, Semi-Annual Report, 1970, report 2, 47. and
Flynn, The Draft, 113.
56. Flynn,
The Draft, 113.
57. Selective
Service System, Semi-Annual Report, 1970, report 2, 47.
58. Flynn, The
Draft, 128.
59. Selective
Service System, Semi-Annual Report, 1970, report 2, 47.
60. Ibid.
61. Flynn,
"Selective Service," in Noone, Selective Conscientious Objection,
42.
62. Eitzen,
"Mennonite I-W Program," 370-371 and "C.O.'s Protest Is Not
Silenced," Christian Century77 (October 26,
1960):1238.
63. The
Brethren contributed 1429 C.O.s and the Friends contributed 459. Smaller
pacifist groups, like the Old German
Baptist Brethren (350), Christadelphians (89), the Russian Molokan (16), and
others, also contributed. "Denominational Affiliations," Reporter
for Conscience' Sake, 21, no. 10 (November 1964):3.
64. Ibid.
65. "More
I-W Statistics," Reporter for Conscience' Sake, 22 (November
1965):3.
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[ Introduction ] [ 1. The Development of Conscientious Objection Through World War I ] [ 2. World War II and the Origin of Modern Conscientious Objection ] [ 3. Legal History of Conscientious Objection ] [ 4. Conscientious Objection During the Vietnam War ] [ 5. The Religious Response to Conscientious Objection ] [ 6. Conclusion ] [ Tables and Charts ] [ Bibliography ]
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