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"By Reason of Religious Training and Belief..."


A History of 

Conscientious Objection and Religion

 during the Vietnam War


By Karl D. Nelson

Chapter II: 

World War II and the Origin of Modern Conscientious Objection

Á¦ 2 Àå:

Á¦2Â÷ ¼¼°è´ëÀü°ú Çö´ëÀû ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÇ ±â¿ø

"Work of National Importance"

Public Opinion

Religious Response to Conscientious Objection

The Post-War Period

Conclusion

 

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"Work of National Importance"

Public Opinion

Religious Response to Conscientious Objection

The Post-War Period

Conclusion

World War II laid much of the legal and administrative framework for Vietnam-era conscientious objection. In 1940 Congress created the Selective Service System, which would remain largely unchanged until the 1960s. With this legislation, Congress for the first time exempted religious objectors regardless of their denominational affiliation. Á¦2Â÷ ¼¼°è´ëÀüÀº º£Æ®³² ÀüÀï ½Ã±âÀÇ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¸¦ À§ÇÑ ¹ý·üÀû ¹× ÇàÁ¤Àû ±âƲÀÇ ´ëºÎºÐÀ» ¸¶·ÃÇÏ¿´´Ù. 1940³â ÀÇȸ´Â ´ëü º¹¹« Á¦µµ¸¦ â¼³ÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, À̰ÍÀº 1960³â´ë ±îÁö ´ëüÀûÀ¸·Î º¯°æµÇÁö ¾Ê°í ³²¾Æ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ÀÌ·± ÀÔ¹ýÀ¸·Î¼­, ÀÇȸ´Â óÀ½À¸·Î Á¾±³Àû °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀ» ±×µéÀÇ Á¾ÆÄÀû ¿¬´ë¿Í °ü°è¾øÀÌ ¸éÁ¦ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¡¡

In 1940, with the war raging in Europe and dark clouds over the Pacific, the United States began drafting men. The Selective Service Act (1940) created the Selective Service System, an institution which remained much the same through the Vietnam War. Also under this law, for the first time conscientious objection was recognized to be a matter of individual conscience, not group affiliation or creed. Congress provided for conscientious objection with the inclusion of Section 5(g) of the Selective Service Act, which stated that: Nothing contained in this Act shall be construed to require any person to be subject to combatant training and service in the land or naval forces of the United States who, by reason of religious training and belief, is conscientiously opposed to participation in war in any form.1[emphasis added] Despite the dismissal of the group requirement, World War II (WWII) conscientious objectors were still predominately members of the historic peace churches. However, some objectors with mainstream religious views were also classified as conscientious objectors. In all cases the objectors had religious affiliation and demonstrated opposition to participation in all war. Nearly 12,000 men entered the Civilian Public Service camps, the non-military work designed for conscientious objectors. The Selective Service estimates that about 25,000 C.O.s entered the army as non-combatants.2 Registrants were classified as conscientious objectors only if they did not qualify for a myriad of deferments. Therefore, many men who held pacifist beliefs were likely deferred for other reasons.3

1940³â, ÀüÀïÀÌ À¯·´¿¡¼­ ¸ÍÀ§¸¦ ¶³Ä¡°í ÅÂÆò¾ç¿¡ ¾îµÎ¿î ±¸¸§µéÀÌ ´þÈú ´ë, ¹ÌÇÕÁß±¹Àº ³²ÀÚµéÀ» ¡º´Çϱ⠽ÃÀÛÇß´Ù. ´ëü º¹¹« ¹ý(1940)Àº ´ëü º¹¹« Á¦µµ¸¦ â¼³ÇßÀ¸¸ç, ÀÌ ±â°üÀº º£Æ®³² ÀüÀïÀÌ ³¡³¯ ¶§±îÁö °ÅÀÇ º¯ÇÔ¾øÀÌ Á¸¼ÓµÇ¾ú´Ù. ¶ÇÇÑ ÀÌ ¹ý·ü ¾Æ·¡¼­, ÃÖÃÊ·Î ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ°¡ Áý´Ü°úÀÇ ¿¬´ë ¶Ç´Â ½ÅÁ¶°¡ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó °³ÀÎÀÇ ¾ç½ÉÀÇ ¹®Á¦·Î ÀÎÁ¤µÇ¾ú´Ù. ÀÇȸ´Â ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿© ´ëü º¹¹« ¹ýÀÇ Á¦5(g)Ç׿¡ »ðÀÔÇÏ¿© ±ÔÁ¤ÇÏ¿´´Â ¹Ù, ÀÌ¿Í °°ÀÌ ¼±¾ðÇÏ¿´´Ù: ÀÌ ¹ý¿¡ ´ã±ä ¾î´À °Íµµ, Á¾±³Àû ÈÆ·Ã ¹× ½Å³ä¿¡ ÀÇÇÏ¿©, ¾ç½ÉÀûÀ¸·Î ¾î¶² ÇüÅÂÀÇ ÀüÀï¿¡µµ Âü¿©Çϱ⸦ °ÅºÎÇÏ´Â ¾î¶² °³ÀÎÀÌ ¹ÌÇÕÁß±¹ÀÇ Áö»ó ¹× ÇØ»ó ±º´ë¿¡¼­ ÀüÅõÈÆ·Ã ¹× º¹¹«¿¡ Ã³ÇØÁüÀ¸·Î ÇØ¼®µÉ ¼ö°¡ ¾ø´Ù.(°­Á¶³»¿ëÀÌ Ãß°¡µÊ). ´Üü ¿ä°ÇÀ» ¿ÏÈ­¿¡µµ ºÒ±¸Çϰí, Á¦2Â÷ ¼¼°è´ëÀü(WWII)ÀÇ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀº ¿©ÀüÈ÷ ¿ª»çÀû ÆòÈ­ ±³È¸µéÀÇ ±¸¼º¿øµéÀ̾ú´Ù. ±×·¯³ª, ÀϺΠÁÖ·ù Á¾±³Àû ½Ã°¢µéµµ ¶ÇÇÑ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚµé·Î ºÐ·ùµÇ¾ú´Ù. ¸ðµç °æ¿ìµé¿¡ À־ °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀº Á¾±³Àû ¿¬´ë¸¦ °¡Á³À¸¸ç ¸ðµç ÀüÀï¿¡ Âü¿©ÇÔ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ °ÅºÎ¸¦ ³ªÅ¸³»¾ú´Ù. °ÅÀÇ 12,000¸íÀÇ »ç¶÷µéÀÌ, ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀ» À§ÇØ °èȹµÈ ºñ±º»çÀû Ȱµ¿À¸·Î¼­, ¹Î°£ °øÀÍ ±Ù¹« Ä·ÇÁ¿¡ µé¾î°¬´Ù. ´ëü º¹¹«´Â ¾à 25,000 ¸íÀÇ COµéÀÌ ºñÀüÅõ¿øÀ¸·Î ±º´ë¿¡ µé¾î°¬´Ù°í ÃßÁ¤ÇÑ´Ù. µî·ÏÀÚµéÀº ±×µéÀÌ ¸¹Àº À¯¿¹¿¡ ÀûÇÕÇÏÁö ¾Ê´Ù¸é ¿ÀÁ÷ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚµé·Î ºÐ·ùµÇ¾ú´Ù. ±×·¯¹Ç·Î ÆòÈ­ÁÖÀÇ ½Å³äµå¸¦ Áö´Ñ ¸¹Àº »ç¶÷µéÀÌ ´Ù¸¥ ÀÌÀ¯µé·Î À¯¿¹µÉ °¡´É¼ºÀÌ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù.
The Selective Service Act provided for the creation of a decentralized system of local draft boards, with state and national appeal boards. Although policy was determined nationally, virtually all decisions regarding draft status and deferments were made by some 4,000 local draft boards.4 These boards consisted of at least three members, each appointed for life. Ideally, they were members of the community over which the board had jurisdiction, but this was not always the case.5 While some draft boards judged each case according to the rules, others simply did not grant conscientious objector deferments.6 In case an applicant did not receive the classification he had desired, there was a system of local and national appeal boards. The decentralized system was largely the product of its long-time director, General Lewis B. Hershey. Hershey was a career military officer who had worked on conscription issues since 1926.7 Although he had Mennonite ancestors, Hershey was unchurched.8 Hershey, a conservative Republican,was a strong advocate of state's rights, and he was very wary of a strong, centralized government.9 Largely due to the force of his personality, the S.S.S. remained highly decentralized. Led by a national headquarters, the Selective Service was mostly made up of volunteers.10 The local boards were the responsibility of the state governors, not the national headquarters. During World War II, Hershey bragged that the local boards "need not pay any attention to 99 percent of the things we sent out....It is a good thing they do not have to."11 Hershey was initially an assistant to the civilian director of the S.S.S. When the director resigned in 1941, Hershey was appointed to the position, where he remained until early 1970.12 Hershey, despite his secular and military background, was rather tolerant of conscientious objection, instructing the boards to give equal treatment to conscientious objectors. To Hershey, conscientious objection was an "experiment in democracy...to find out whether our democracy is big enough to preserve minority rights in a time of national emergency."13 Hershey himself did his part to help conscientious objectors. Hershey ran the presidential appeal board, the final level of appeal available to registrants. This board was significantly more liberal in granting C.O. classifications than the local boards. Only about ten percent of registrants appealing to the presidential board were given I-A (available for military service) status, whereas local boards rejected C.O. claims over seventy-five percent of the time.14 This discrepancy could be due, in part, to the fact that a registrant persistent enough to take his case through the multi- layered appeal process was probably viewed by the presidential board as having more sincerity than at the local board level. Nevertheless, Hershey and the presidential appeal board were clearly much more tolerant of conscientious objectors than the local boards. Hershey was proud of the success of the conscientious objector program, writing, "we today live in a country where the small minority can enjoy freedom of conscience and not be placed in concentration camps on account of their belief."15 Hershey's attitude was quite unlike many government officials, let alone military officers.16 Yet, despite the successes of classification, conscientious objection did pose significant problems during World War II. Conscientious objectors who refused to enter the military were required to serve in the Civilian Public Service camps, which some objectors viewed as being quite similar to the "concentration camps" Hershey was proud to have avoided. 

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´ëü º¹¹« ¹ýÀº ÁÖÁ¤ºÎ ¹× ±¹°¡ Ç×¼Ò À§¿øÈ¸µéÀ» Áö´ÔÀ¸·Î¼­, ºÐ»êÈ­µÈ Áö¿ª ¡º´ À§¿øÈ¸ÀÇ ¼³¸³À» ±ÔÁ¤ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ºñ·Ï Á¤Ã¥Àº ±¹°¡Àû Â÷¿ø¿¡¼­ °áÁ¤µÇÁö¸¸, »ç½Ç»ó ¡º´ ÀÚ°Ý ¹× À¯¿¹¿¡ °üÇÑ ¸ðµç °áÁ¤µéÀº ¾à 4,000¿©ÀÇ Áö¿ª ¡º´ À§¿øÈ¸¿¡ ÀÇÇÏ¿© °áÁ¤µÇ¾ú´Ù. À̵é À§¿øÈ¸µéÀº Àû¾îµµ ¼¼¸íÀÇ ÀÓ¿øÀ¸·Î ±¸¼ºµÇ¸ç °¢ÀÚ´Â Æò»ýÁ÷À¸·Î ÀÓ¸íµÈ´Ù. °³³äÀûÀ¸·Î, ±×µéÀº À§¿øÈ¸°¡ °üÇÒ±ÇÀ» °¡Áö´Â °øµ¿Ã¼ÀÇ ±¸¼º¿øµéÀÌÁö¸¸, ¾ðÁ¦³ª ±×·± °ÍÀº ¾Æ´Ï¾ú´Ù. ÀϺΠ¡º´ À§¿øÈ¸µéÀÌ Á¦°¢±â »ç¾ÈÀ» ±ÔÁ¤µé¿¡ µû¶ó ÆÇÁ¤ÇÏÁö¸¸, ´Ù¸¥ À§¿øÈ¸µéÀº ¸·¿¬È÷ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚÀÇ À¯¿¹µéÀ» ÀÎÁ¤ÇÏÁö ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. Áö¿øÀÚ°¡ ÀÚ½ÅÀÌ Èñ¸ÁÇÏ´Â ºÐ·ù¸¦ ¾òÁö ¸øÇÏ´Â °æ¿ì, Áö¿ª ¹× ±¹°¡Àû Ç×¼Ò Á¦µµ°¡ Á¸ÀçÇß´Ù. ºÐ»êÈ­µÈ Á¦µµ´Â ÁÖ·Î ¿À·§µ¿¾È ÀÚ¸®Çß´ø ±¹ÀåÀÎ, Lewis B. Hershey À屺ÀÇ ÀÛǰÀ̾ú´Ù. Hershey Á÷¾÷ ±º»ç Àå±³·Î¼­ 1926³â ÀÌÈÄ Â¡Áý ¹®Á¦¿¡ °üÇÏ¿© ÀÏÇØ¿Ô´Ù. ºñ·Ï ±×ÀÇ ¼±Á¶°¡ ¸Þ³ëÆÄ¿´Áö¸¸, Hershey ´Â ±³È¸¸¦ ¸ô¶ú´Ù. Hershey´Â, º¸¼öÀû °øÈ­ÁÖÀÇÀڷμ­, ±¹°¡ ±Ç¸®µéÀÇ °­·ÂÇÑ ¿ËÈ£ÀÚ¿´À¸¸ç, ±×´Â °­·ÂÇϰí Áß¾ÓÁý±ÇÀûÀÎ Á¤ºÎ¿¡ ´ëÇØ ¸Å¿ì °æ°èÇÏ¿´´Ù. ÁÖ·Î ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ¼ºÇ° Å¿À¸·Î, SSS´Â °íµµ·Î ºÐ»êÈ­µÇ¾ú´Ù. ±¹°¡ »ç·ÉºÎÀÇ Áöµµ¾Æ·¡¿¡, ´ëü º¹¹«´Â ´ëüÀûÀ¸·Î Áö¿øÀÚµé·Î ±¸¼ºµÇ¾ú´Ù. Áö¿ª À§¿øÈ¸µéÀº ÁÖÁö»çÀÇ Ã¥ÀÓÀÌÁö ±¹°¡ »ç·ÉºÎÀÇ Ã¥ÀÓÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï¾ú´Ù. Á¦2Â÷ ¼¼°è´ëÀü µ¿¾È Hershey´Â Áö¿ª À§¿øÈ¸µéÀÌ "¿ì¸®°¡ ³»¸®´Â 99%ÀÇ Àϵ鿡 ÁÖÀǸ¦ ±â¿ïÀÏ Çʿ䰡 ¾ø´Ù... ±×·² Çʿ䰡 ¾øÀ½Àº ÁÁÀº ÀÏÀÌ´Ù"¶ó°í ÀÚ¶ûÇÏ¿´´Ù. Hershey´Â óÀ½¿¡ SSSÀÇ ¹Î°£ ±¹ÀåÀÇ ºÎ°üÀ̾ú´Ù. 1941³â ±¹ÀåÀÌ »çÀÓÇÏÀÚ Hershey°¡ ±× ÀÚ¸®¿¡ ÀÓ¸íµÇ¾úÀ¸¸ç, ±×´Â ±× ÀÚ¸®¸¦ 1970³â ÃʱîÁö ¸Ó¹°·¯ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. Hershey´Â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ¼¼¼ÓÀû ¹× ±º»çÀû ¹è°æ¿¡µµ ºÒ±¸Çϰí, ¿ÀÈ÷·Á ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¿¡ ´ëÇØ °ü¿ëÀûÀ̾úÀ¸¸ç, À§¿øÈ¸µé¿¡°Ô ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀڵ鿡 ´ëÇØ µ¿µîÇÏ°Ô ´ë¿ìÇÒ °ÍÀ» Áö½ÃÇÏ¿´´Ù. Hershey¿¡°Ô À־, ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ´Â ¿ì¸®ÀÇ ¹ÎÁÖÁÖÀǰ¡ ±¹°¡Àû ºñ»ó ½Ã±â¿¡ ¼Ò¼öµéÀÇ ±Ç¸®µé º¸ÀåÇÒ ¸¸Å­ ¼ºÀåÇÏ¿´´ÂÁö ¾Ë¾Æ³»±â À§ÇÔ¿¡ À־... ¹ÎÁÖÁÖÀÇÀÇ ½ÇÇè"À̾ú´Ù. Hershey Àڽŵµ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀ» µ½±â À§ÇØ ½º½º·ÎÀÇ ¸òÀ» ¸Ã¾Ò´Ù. Hershey µî·ÏÀÚ¿¡¿¡ Çã¿ëµÇ´Â ¸¶Áö¸· ´Ü°èÀÇ Ç׼ҷμ­, ´ëÅë·É Ç×¼Ò À§¿øÈ¸¸¦ ¿î¿µÇÏ¿´´Ù. ÀÌ À§¿øÈ¸´Â Áö¿ª À§¿øÈ¸µé º¸´Ùµµ CO ºÐ·ùµéÀ» ÀÎÁ¤ÇÔ¿¡¼­ ÇöÀúÈ÷ ´õ¿í °ü´ëÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¿ÀÁ÷ ´ëÅë·É À§¿øÈ¸¿¡ Ç×¼ÒÇÏ´Â µî·ÏÀÚµé Áß¿¡¼­ ¿ÀÁ÷ ¾à 10%¸¸ÀÌ (º´¿ª¿¡ ÀûÇÕÇÑ)I-Aµî±ÞÀ» ¹Þ¾ÒÀ¸¸ç, ¹Ý¸é¿¡ Áö¿ª À§¿øÈ¸µéÀº ´ç½ÃÀÇ 75% ÀÌ»ó¿¡ ´ëÇÑ CO ÁÖÀåµéÀ» °ÅºÎÇÏ¿´´Ù. ÀÌ·± Â÷ÀÌ´Â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ »ç¾ÈÀ» ¿©·¯ °ãÀÇ Ç×¼Ò °úÁ¤À» ÅëÇÏ¿© ²ø°í°¥ ¸¸Å­ ¿Ï°­ÇÑ µî·ÏÀÚ´Â ¾Æ¸¶µµ Áö¿ª À§¿øÈ¸ ¼öÁغ¸´Ù´Â ´ëÅë·É À§¿øÈ¸¿¡ ÀÇÇØ¼­ Á»´õ Áø½ÇÇÔÀ¸·Î ºñÃçÁø´Ù´Â ÀϺΠ»ç½Ç¿¡ ±âÀÎÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×·¯ÇÔ¿¡µµ ºÒ±¸Çϰí, Hershey¿Í ´ëÅë·É Ç×¼Ò À§¿øÈ¸´Â Áö¿ª À§¿øÈ¸µé º¸´Ùµµ ¸í¹éÈ÷ ÈξÀ ´õ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀڵ鿡°Ô °ü¿ëÀûÀ̾ú´Ù. Hershey´Â ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚ ÇÁ·Î±×·¥ÀÇ ¼º°ø¿¡ ´ëÇØ ÀÚ¶û½º·¯¿ö Çϸç, ´ÙÀ½°ú °°ÀÌ ±â·ÏÇß´Ù, "¿ì¸®´Â ¿À´Ã³¯ ÀûÀº ¼Ò¼öÀÚµéÀÌ ¾ç½ÉÀÇ ÀÚÀ¯¸¦ ´©¸± ¼ö ÀÖÀ¸¸ç, ±×µéÀÇ ½Å³äÀ» ÀÌÀ¯·Î °­Á¦ ¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡ °¤È÷Áö ¾Ê´Â ¼¼»ó¿¡ »ì°í ÀÖ´Ù." HersheyÀÇ Åµµ´Â ±º Àå±³µéÀº Â÷Ä¡Çϰí¶óµµ, ¸¹Àº Á¤ºÎ °ü¸®µé°ú´Â »ó´çÈ÷ ´Þ¶ú´Ù. ±×·¯³ª, ºÐ·ùÀÇ ¼º°ø¿¡µµ ºÒ±¸Çϰí, ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ´Â Á¦2Â÷ ¼¼°è´ëÀü µ¿¾È ½É°¢ÇÑ ¹®Á¦µéÀ» µå·¯³»¾ú´Ù. ±º´ë¿¡ µé¾î°¡±â¸¦ °ÅºÎÇÑ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀº ¹Î°£ ºÀ»ç ¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡¼­ ºÀ»çÇϵµ·Ï ÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, À̰ÍÀº  Hershey°¡ ÀÚ¶û½º·¯ÀÌ ÇÇÇØ°¬À¸¸ç ÀϺΠ°ÅºÎÀÚµéÀÌ "°­Á¦ ¼ö¿ë¼Ò"¿Í »ó´çÈ÷ À¯»çÇÑ °ÍÀ¸·Î ¿©±â´ø °÷À̾ú´Ù. 

"Work of National Importance" 

"±¹°¡Àû Á߿伺ÀÇ ÀÓ¹«"

  The Selective Service, and the C.O.s themselves, wished to avoid the problems of WWI. Only those C.O.s who wished to perform non-combatant service were inducted into the military. The rest, some 12,000 men, were assigned to jobs, as the 1940 law provided, in "work of national importance under civilian direction."17 For some, this meant working in hospitals or as "guinea pigs" for medical research.18 Service (CPS). But for most, "work of national importance" meant the Civilian Public Conscientious objectors were sent to one of a number of CPS camps across the country. The camps were a joint venture of the S.S.S. and the historic peace churches.19 Although the church groups provided financial support, the Selective Service was in charge of the CPS operation.20 The camps, many of them located at former Civilian Conservation Corps camps, produced over eight million man-days of labor throughout the war.21 The men were not paid for their labor, and in fact, many, if they could afford it, were asked to contribute to the CPS camps.22 The CPS camps proved almost as troublesome as the WWI military arrangement. The churches and the S.S.S. often came into conflict, largely because although the churches paid for CPS, they had little control over its operation.23 Many C.O.s also were unhappy with the camps, mainly because they were asked "to pay $30 a month out of their own pocket for the privilege of working for nothing."24 This arrangement even led the American Civil Liberties Union to denounce the camps by accusing the government of placing C.O.s beneath prisoners of war, convicts, and enemy aliens because those groups were paid for their forced labor.25 Many also felt that CPS was not under "civilian control," as the law had dictated. Much of how the men viewed CPS depended on their religious affiliation.26  The Mennonites, especially, were noted for being supportive.  Many local residents particularly resented having CPS camps in their area. The Lincoln County [Oregon] Times printed an editorial asking: So WHY are these Conscientious Objectors with the JITTERBUG COMPLEX allowed to go out, drink and publicly flount [sic] their draft status in front of hundreds of people who have Dear Ones in the Uniform of These United States?27 One local resident wanted them moved "back in the interior like they do [with] the Japs."28 

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´ëü º¹¹«, ±×¸®°í COµé ½º½º·Î°¡ WWIÀÇ ¹®Á¦µéÀ» ÇÇÇÏ°í ½Í¾îÇß´Ù. ºñÀüÅõ¿øÀ¸·Î¼­ÀÇ º¹¹«¸¦ ¼öÇàÇϰíÀÚ ÇÏ´Â COµé¸¸ÀÌ ±º´ë·Î ¡ÁýµÇ¾ú´Ù. ³ª¸ÓÁö´Â, ¾à 12,000¸í Á¤µµ·Î¼­, 1940³âÀÇ ¹ý·üÀÌ ±ÔÁ¤ÇÑ ´ë·Î, ¹Î°£ÀÎÀÇ ÁöÈ־Ʒ¡ ÀÖ´Â "±¹°¡Àû Á߿伺À» Áö´Ñ ÀÓ¹«"¿¡ ¹èÄ¡µÇ¾ú´Ù. ÀϺο¡°Ô À־, À̰ÍÀº º´¿øµé¿¡¼­ ±Ù¹«ÇÔ ¶Ç´Â "ÀÇÇÐ ¿¬±¸"ÀÇ ½ÇÇè¿ëÀ¸·Î¼­¸¦ ÀǹÌÇß´Ù.  ¶Ç´Â ±×·¯³ª ´ëüÀûÀ¸·Î, "±¹°¡Àû Á߿伺À» Áö´Ñ ÀÓ¹«" ¹Î°£ÀÇ °øÀÍÀû ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀÌ Àü±¹¿¡ ÀÖ´Â CPS ¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡ º¸³»Á³À½À» ÀǹÌÇÑ´Ù. ¼ö¿ë¼Ò´Â SSS¿Í ¿ª»çÀû ÆòÈ­ ±³È¸µéÀÇ ÇÕÀÛ »ç¾÷À̾ú´Ù. ºñ·Ï ±³È¸ ´ÜüµéÀÌ ÀçÁ¤Àû Áö¿øÀ» Á¦°øÇÏ¿´Áö¸¸, ´ëü º¹¹«°¡ CPS ¿î¿µÀ» Ã¥ÀÓÁö°í ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ¼ö¿ë¼ÒµéÀº, ±× ÁßÀÇ ¸¹Àº °÷ÀÌ °ú°ÅÀÇ ¹Î°£ º¸È£ ¿©´Ü ¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡ À§Ä¡Çϰí ÀÖ¾úÀ¸¸ç, ÀüÀï Áß¿¡ 800¸¸ÀÎÀÏÀÇ ³ëµ¿À» ÇØ³»¾ú´Ù. ±×µéÀÇ ³ëµ¿¿¡ ´ëÇØ º¸¼ö´Â ¾ø¾úÀ¸¸ç, »ç½Ç, ¸¸ÀÏ ±×µéÀÌ º¸¼ö¸¦ ¹ÞÀ» ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù°í ÇÏ´õ¶óµµ, ¸¹Àº »ç¶÷µéÀº CPS ¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡ ±âºÎÇÒ °ÍÀÌ °­¿äµÇ¾ú´Ù. CPS ¼ö¿ë¼Ò´Â WWIÀÇ ±º»ç Á¦µµ ¸¸Å­À̳ª ¹®Á¦°¡ ¸¹¾Ò´Ù. ±³È¸µé°ú SSS´Â Á¾Á¾ Ãæµ¹ÇÏ¿´´Âµ¥, ±× ÀÌÀ¯´Â ÁÖ·Î ºñ·Ï ±³È¸°¡ CPS¿¡ ÁöºÒÇÏ¿´Áö¸¸ ±×µéÀÌ ±× ¿î¿µ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÅëÁ¦±ÇÀÌ °ÅÀÇ ¾ø¾ú±â ¶§¹®À̾ú´Ù. ¸¹Àº COµéµµ ¿ª½Ã ¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡ ºÒ¸¸À̴µ¥, ±× ÀÌÀ¯´Â ÁÖ·Î ±×µéÀÌ ¾Æ¹« º¸»ó ¾øÀÌ ÀÏÇÔ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Æ¯±Ç¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿© ±×µé ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ÁÖ¸Ó´Ï¿¡¼­ ¸Å´Þ 30´Þ·¯¸¦ ÁöºÒÇϵµ·Ï µÇ¾î ÀÖ¾ú±â ¶§¹®À̾ú´Ù. ÀÌ·± Á¦µµ´Â ½ÉÁö¾î, ±× Áý´ÜµéÀÌ ±×µéÀÇ °­Á¦ ³ëµ¿¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ´ñ°¡¸¦ ÃëÇϱ⠶§¹®¿¡, ¹Ì±¹ ½Ã¹ÎÀÚÀ¯¿¬ÇÕÀÌ Á¤ºÎ°¡ COµéÀ» ÀüÀï ¹üÁËÀÚ, Á˼ö, ¹× Àû±¹ÀÇ ¿Ü±¹Àεé ÀÌÇÏ·Î Ãë±ÞÇϰí ÀÖ´Ù°í ºñ³­ÇÔÀ¸·Î½á ¼ö¿ë¼Ò¸¦ °í¹ßÇϵµ·Ï ¸¸µé¾ú´Ù. ¸¹Àº »ç¶÷µéÀº ¶ÇÇÑ CPS°¡ ¹ý·üÀÌ ±ÔÁ¤ÇÑ ´ë·Î "¹Î°£ÀÇ ÅëÁ¦"ÇÏ¿¡ ÀÖÁö ¾Ê´Ù°í ´À²¼´Ù. CPS¸¦ ¾î¶»°Ô ¹Ù¶óº¸´Â°¡ÀÇ ´ëºÎºÐÀº Á¾±³Àû ¿¬´ë¿¡ ´Þ·Á ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ƯÈ÷ ¸Þ³ëÆÄµéÀº À̸¦ ÁöÁöÇÔÀ¸·Î¼­ ¾Ë·ÁÁ³´Ù. ¸¹Àº Áö¿ª ÁֹεéÀº CPS ¼ö¿ë¼Ò°¡ ±×µé Áö¿ª¿¡ ÀÖ´Ù´Â °Í¿¡ ƯÈ÷ ºÐ³ëÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¿À·¹°ïÀÇ ¸µÄÁ Ä«¿îƼÀÇ TimesÁö´Â ´ÙÀ½°ú °°ÀÌ Áú¹®ÇÏ´Â »ç¼³À» ½Ç¾ú´Ù: ±×·±µ¥ ¿Ö ÀÌµé ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀÌ ¹ÛÀ¸·Î ³ª¿Í¼­, ¸¶½Ã¸ç, ¹ÌÇÕÁß±¹ÀÇ Á¦º¹À» ÀÔÀº ¾ÖÁöÁßÁöÇÏ´Â ÀÚ³àµéÀ» °¡Áø ¼ö¹éÀÇ »ç¶÷µé ¾Õ¿¡¼­ °ø°ø¿¬È÷ ±×µéÀÇ Â¡º´ µî±ÞÀ» »Ë³»µµ·Ï Çã¿ëÇϴ°¡? ÇÑ Áö¿ª ÁÖ¹ÎÀº ±×µéÀÌ "ÀϺ»Àεéó·³ ³»ºÎ¿¡ ¹°·¯¼­" Àֱ⸦ Èñ¸ÁÇß´Ù.

Public Opinion 

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Despite some animosity towards the CPS camps, it appears that the public tolerated conscientious objectors during WWII. Unlike both the Civil War and World War I, conscientious objectors to World War II did not face as much violence or discrimination. Two studies of public attitudes towards conscientious objection, both by Leo Crespi, were published during the war.29 Crespi expected to find significant hostility towards conscientious objectors, much like they experienced in previous conflicts.30 Instead he found that in both surveys, one of Princeton students and the other of the general public, the public had no great animosity towards conscientious objectors.31 Fifty percent of the Princeton group said they would not discriminate against C.O.s at all, even to the point of "accepting them as close relatives by marriage."32 In general, the more participation a C.O. took in the war effort, the more they were approved of.33 For example, a non-combatant C.O. serving in the military was held in higher esteem than one serving in a CPS camp. As one might expect, political liberals tended to approve more of C.O.s than did political conservatives.34 In his second study, Crespi noted that people with higher educational levels tended to be more favorable towards C.O.s than those with limited educational backgrounds.35 Still, with all educational groups taken together, Crespi concluded that the public was tolerant toward C.O.s personally, and somewhat tolerant of C.O. principles.36 There were some incidents of discrimination against C.O.s. During WWII, a former C.O. re- applied for a teaching position in Kentucky.37 He was denied this position. Assistant Attorney General W. Owen Keller of Kentucky, the man who ruled on this incident, said The fact that the individual in question has served a term in a concentration camp set aside for persons such as he, indicates that at least he has been guilty of an offense involving moral turpitude, and that his conduct has been such that an orderly society must remove him temporarily from circulation.38 In another incident, a group of Mennonite C.O.s from central Kansas were harassed and beaten by a group of draftees. The draftees were charged, but fined only a small amount for the fight.39 

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CPS ¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÀϺΠÁõ¿À½É¿¡µµ ºÒ±¸Çϰí, WWII µ¿¾È ´ëÁßÀº ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀ» °ü´ëÈ÷ ¿©±â´Â °Íó·³ º¸ÀδÙ. ³»Àü ¹× Á¦1Â÷ ¼¼°è´ëÀü°ú´Â ´Þ¸®, Á¦2Â÷ ¼¼°è´ëÀü¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀº ±×ó·³ ¸¹Àº Æø·ÂÀ̳ª Â÷º°À» ¸ÂÀÌÇÏÁö´Â ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ´ëÁßµéÀÇ Åµµµé¿¡ °üÇÑ µÎ°¡ÁöÀÇ ¿¬±¸µéÀÌ Leo Crespi¿¡ ÀÇÇØ ÀüÀï Áß¿¡ ¹ßÇàµÇ¾ú´Ù. Crespi´Â, ÀÌÀüÀÇ ÀüÀïµé¿¡¼­ ±×µéÀÌ °æÇèÇÑ ¹Ù¿Í °°ÀÌ, ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀڵ鿡 ´ëÇÏ¿© »ó´çÇÑ Àû´ë°¨À» ¹ß°ßÇÒ °ÍÀ¸·Î ¿¹»óÇÏ¿´´Ù. ´ë½Å¿¡ ±×´Â µÎ°¡Áö Á¶»ç, Áï Çϳª´Â ÇÁ¸°½ºÅæÀÇ Çлýµé ±×¸®°í ´Ù¸¥ Çϳª´Â ÀÏ¹Ý ´ëÁߵ鿡¼­, ´ëÁßµéÀº ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀڵ鿡 ´ëÇÏ¿© ¾Æ¹«·± Ä¿´Ù¶õ Áõ¿À½Éµµ °¡Áö°í ÀÖÁö ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù´Â °ÍÀ» ¾Ë¾Æ³Â´Ù. ÇÁ¸°½ºÅæ ±×·ìÀÇ 50%´Â ±×µéÀº COµé¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿© ÀüÇô Â÷º°À» ÇÏÁö ¾ÊÀ» °ÍÀ̸ç, ½ÉÁö¾î´Â °áÈ¥À» ÅëÇÏ¿© ±×µé°ú ¹ÐÁ¢ÇÑ Ä£Ã´À¸·Î ¹Þ¾Æ µéÀ̱â±îÁö ÇÒ °ÍÀ̶ó°í ¸»Çß´Ù. ÀϹÝÀûÀ¸·Î, ÀüÀï ³ë·Â¿¡¼­ COÀÇ Âü¿©°¡ ¸¹À¸¸é ¸¹À» ¼ö·Ï, ±×µéÀº ´õ¿í ÀÎÁ¤¹Þ¾Ò´Ù. ¿¹¸¦ µé¸é ±º´ë¿¡¼­ º¹¹«ÇÏ´Â ºñÀüÅõ¿øÀº CPS ¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡¼­ ºÀ»çÇÏ´Â »ç¶÷º¸´Ù ÈξÀ Á¸Áß¹Þ¾Ò´Ù. ¿¹»óµÇ´Â ÀÏÀÌÁö¸¸, Á¤Ä¡Àû ÀÚÀ¯ÁÖÀÇÀÚµéÀÌ Á¤Ä¡Àû º¸¼öÁÖÀÇÀڵ麸´Ùµµ ´õ CO¸¦ ÀÎÁ¤ÇÏ´Â °æÇâÀÌ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. CrespiÀÇ µÎ ¹øÂ° ¿¬±¸¿¡¼­, Crespi´Â ³ôÀº ±³À°Àû ¼öÁØÀ» Áö´Ñ »ç¶÷µéÀÌ Á¦ÇÑµÈ ±³À°Àû ¹è°æÀ» °¡Áø »ç¶÷µéº¸´Ùµµ CO¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿© Á»´õ È£ÀÇÀûÀ̾ú´Ù. ¾î·µç, ¸ðµç ±³À°Àû ±×·ìµéÀ» ÇÔ²² °í·ÁÇϰǴë, ´ëÁßµéÀº °³ÀÎÀûÀ¸·Î COµé¿¡ ´ëÇØ °ü¿ëÀûÀ̾úÀ¸¸ç, COÀÇ ¿øÄ¢µéÀ» °ü¿ëÇÏ´Â ÆíÀ̾ú´Ù. COµé¿¡ ´ëÇØ ÀϺΠÂ÷º°ÀûÀÎ »ç°Çµéµµ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. Á¦2Â÷ ¼¼°è´ëÀü µ¿¾È, °ú°ÅÀÇ CO°¡ ÄËÅÍŰÁÖ¿¡¼­ ±³À°Á÷¿¡ Àç½ÅûÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×´Â ÀÌ Á÷À§¿¡ °ÅÀýµÇ¾ú´Ù. ÄËÅÍŰÁÖÀÇ ¹ý¹«Â÷°ü W. Owen Keller´Â ÀÌ »ç°ÇÀ» °áÁ¤Çϸ鼭, ¹®Á¦ ´ç»çÀÚ°¡ ±×¿Í °°Àº »ç¶÷µéÀ» À§ÇØ ³»Á¤µÈ ¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡¼­ ÀÏÁ¤ ±â°£ º¹¹«ÇÏ¿´´Ù´Â »ç½ÇÀº Àû¾îµµ ±×°¡ µµ´öÀûÀÎ ºñ¿­ÇÔÀ» Æ÷ÇÔÇÏ´Â ¹üÁË¿¡ À¯ÁËÀÓÀ» °¡¸®Å°´Â °ÍÀ̸ç, ±×ÀÇ ÇàÀ§¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿© Áú¼­ÀÖ´Â »çȸ´Â ¹Ýµå½Ã ÀáÁ¤ÀûÀ¸·Î ±×ÀÇ Ã¤¿ëÀ» ¸·¾Æ¾ß ÇÑ´Ù°í ¸»Çß´Ù. ´Ù¸¥ »ç°Ç¿¡¼­´Â, ÁߺΠÄ˻罺 Ãâ½ÅÀÇ ¸Þ³ëÆÄ  CO Áý´ÜÀÌ ÀÏ´ÜÀÇ Â¡º´Àڵ鿡 ÀÇÇÏ¿© Çдë´çÇÏ°í ÆøÇà´çÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¡º´ÀÚµéÀº ±â¼ÒµÇ¾úÁö¸¸, ´ÜÁö ½Î¿ò¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿© ¾à°£ÀÇ ¹ú±Ý¸¸ ¹°¾úÀ» »ÓÀÌ´Ù.

Religious Response to Conscientious Objection 

¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Á¾±³°èÀÇ ¹ÝÀÀ

Of the 12,000 conscientious objectors assigned to work in CPS camps, the Selective Service was able to obtain religious information on all but 776 men.40 As one might expect, many C.O.s came from historic peace churches. The Mennonites contributed 4,610 men to CPS, making it the largest single religious group in CPS. Other peace churches trailed behind, with 1,468 Brethren and 902 Quakers. Smaller pacifist groups also had a high number of C.O.s, like the 532 Jehovah's Witnesses and 136 Christadelphians. Some of the larger mainstream Protestant groups also had a number of C.O.s:Methodist (845), Baptist (243), Presbyterian (235), Church of Christ (220), Congregationalist (204), Church of God (154), and Lutheran (124).41 America's largest church, the Roman Catholic Church, had only 162 C.O.s.42  Because of their long history of rejecting war, the high number of historic peace church C.O.s is not surprising. But not every young man in these pacifist churches took the C.O. route. About half of eligible Mennonite young men entered the military, either as combatants or as non- combatant C.O.s.43 Mennonites who were farther away from the traditional Mennonite community tended to eschew the C.O. option in favor of military service.44 Men who made such a decision contrary to the teaching of the church were often ostracized. Just four years after the war, less than one third of Mennonite men who had served in the military remained in the church.45 ¡¡

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CPS ¼ö¿ë¼Ò¿¡¼­ ÀÏÇϵµ·Ï ¹èÄ¡µÈ 12,000¸íÀÇ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚµé Áß¿¡¼­, ´ëü º¹¹«´Â ´ÜÁö 776¸í¿¡ ´ëÇØ¼­¸¸ Á¾±³Àû Á¤º¸¸¦ ¾òÀ» ¼ö ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ¿¹»ó´ë·Î, ¸¹Àº COµéÀº ¿ª»çÀû ÆòÈ­±³È¸·ÎºÎÅÍ ³ª¿Ô´Ù. ¸Þ³ëÆÄ´Â 4,610¸íÀ» CPS¿¡ º¸³ÂÀ¸¸ç, CPS¿¡¼­ °¡Àå Å« À¯ÀÏÀÇ Á¾±³Àû Áý´ÜÀ̾ú´Ù. ´Ù¸¥ ÆòÈ­ ±³È¸µéÀº µÚ¸¦ À̾úÀ¸¸ç, ÇüÁ¦´Ü¿¡¼­ 1,468¸í, ÄùÀÌÄ¿¿¡¼­ 902¸íÀ̾ú´Ù. Á»´õ ÀÛÀº ÆòÈ­ Áý´Üµé ¿ª½Ã ¸¹Àº ¼öÀÇ COµéÀ» Æ÷ÇÔÇϰí ÀÖ¾úÀ¸¸ç, ¿©È£¿ÍÀÇ ÁõÀεéÀÌ 532¸í, ±×¸®½ºµµ ÇüÁ¦´ÜÀÌ 136¸íÀ̾ú´Ù. ÀϺΠ´ë±Ô¸ð ÁÖ·ùÀÇ °³½Å±³ Áý´Üµéµµ ¿ª½Ã ´Ù¼öÀÇ COµéÀ» Æ÷ÇÔÇÏ¿´´Âµ¥, °¨¸®±³(845), ħ·Ê±³(243), Àå·Î±³(235), ±×¸®½ºµµÀÇ ±³È¸(220), ȸÁß±³È¸(204), Çϳª´ÔÀÇ ±³È¸(154), ¹× ·çÅͱ³(124)µîÀÌ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ¹Ì±¹ÀÇ °¡Àå Å« ±³´ÜÀÎ ·Î¸¶ Ä«Å縯 ±³È¸´Â ´ÜÁö 162¸íÀÇ CO¸¦ Æ÷ÇÔÇϰí ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ÆòÈ­ ±³È¸´Â ÀüÀïÀ» °ÅºÎÇÔ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ±×µéÀÇ ¿À·£ ¿ª»ç ¶§¹®¿¡ ¿ª»çÀû ÆòÈ­ ±³È¸ÀÇ COÀÇ ¼ýÀÚ°¡ ¸¹À½À» ³î¶ó¿î ÀÏÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï´Ù. ±×·¯³ª ÀÌµé ÆòÈ­ ±³È¸µéÀÇ ¸ðµç ÀþÀºÀÌµé ¸ðµÎ°¡ COÀÇ ±æÀ» °£ °ÍÀº ¾Æ´Ï´Ù. ÇØ´ç ³ªÀÌÀÇ ¸Þ³ëÆÄ û³âµéÀÇ ¾à Àý¹Ý °¡·®Àº ÀüÅõ¿øÀ̳ª ºñÀüÅõ¿øÀÎ CO·Î¼­ ±º´ë¿¡ ÀÔ´ëÇÏ¿´´Ù. ÀüÅëÀûÀÎ ¸Þ³ëÆÄ °øµ¿Ã¼¿¡¼­ ¸Ö¸® ¶³¾îÁ® ÀÖ´ø ¸Þ³ëÆÄµéÀº º´¿ªÀ» ÅÃÇÔÀ¸·Î¼­ CO ¼±ÅÃÀ» ȸÇÇÇÏ´Â °æÇâÀÌ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ±³È¸ÀÇ °¡¸£Ä§¿¡ ¹Ý´ëµÇ´Â ±×·¯ÇÑ °áÁ¤À» ³»¸° »ç¶÷µéÀº °¡²û Ãß¹æµÇ¾ú´Ù. ÀüÀï ÈÄ ¿ÀÁ÷ 4 ³â µÚ¿¡, ±º´ë¿¡ º¹¹«ÇÑ ¸Þ³ëÆÄ »ç¶÷µé Áß Ã¤ »ïºÐÀÇ ÀÏÀÌ ¾ÈµÇ´Â Àڵ鸸ÀÌ ±³È¸¿¡ ³²¾Æ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. 

The Post-War Period 

ÀüÈÄ ½Ã±â

After the war the public wanted the draft to stop, military leaders wished to form a voluntary army, and President Truman supported a Universal Military Training plan. Congress allowed conscription to lapse in 1947. But the events of the Cold War encouraged Congress to re- instate the draft the next year.46 In 1951 the Department of Defense first provided for in-service conscientious objectors.47 Such objectors could be transferred to non-combat positions. Eleven years later, a provision was enacted that allowed in-service conscientious objectors to be honorably discharged from the military.48 The military operated this program under the same rules as the Selective Service System, and future changes in the S.S.S. operation were also mirrored in the military.49 Neither the Selective Service nor C.O. advocates wished to return to the WWII CPS system. But simply deferring C.O.s was not a popular choice either. One Montana draft board even resigned to protest the deferment of C.O.s.50 The solution came with the Universal Military Training and Service Act of 1951, which allowed C.O.s to perform "work of national importance" under the direction of the local draft boards.51 The work program was implemented on July 1, 1952.52 The draft boards had the power to assign C.O.s to a particular job, although most C.O.s found alternate work without assistance.53 Through alternate service C.O.s did their duty to America by working in hospitals, religious organizations, and any number of other jobs. ¡¡ ÀüÀï ÈÄ ´ëÁßÀº ¡º´ÀÌ ÁߴܵDZ⸦ ¿øÇßÀ¸¸ç, ±º»ç ÁöµµÀÚµéÀº ÀÚ¿ø ÀÔ´ë¿¡ ÀÇÇÑ ±º´ë¸¦ ±¸¼ºÇϱ⸦ Èñ¸ÁÇÏ¿´°í, Æ®·ç¸¸ ´ëÅë·ÉÀº [º¸ÆíÀû ±º»ç ÈÆ·Ã] °èȹÀ» ÁöÁöÇÏ¿´´Ù. ÀÇȸ´Â 1947³â ¡ÁýÀÌ ³¡³¯ °ÍÀ» Çã¿ëÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×·¯³ª ³ÃÀüÀÇ »ç°ÇµéÀº ÀÇȸ·Î ÇÏ¿©±Ý ´ÙÀ½ ÇØ¿¡ ¡º´À¸·Î ȸ±ÍÇϵµ·Ï ¸¸µé¾ú´Ù. 1951³â ±¹¹æºÎ´Â óÀ½À¸·Î º¹¹«ÁßÀÎ ÀÚ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚ¿¡ ´ëÇØ ±ÔÁ¤ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×·¯ÇÑ °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀº ºñÀüÅõ¿øÀÇ À§Ä¡·Î Àüº¸µÉ ¼ö ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. 11³â µÚ¿¡, Çö¿ªÀÇ ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀڵ鿡°Ô ¸í¿¹½º·´°Ô Á¦´ëÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖµµ·ÏÇÏ´Â Á¶Ç×ÀÌ ½ÇÇàµÇ¾ú´Ù. ±º´ë´Â ÀÌ ÇÁ·Î±×·¥À» ´ëüº¹¹«Á¦µµ¿Í ¶È±ùÀº ¿øÄ¢ ¾Æ·¡¼­ ¿î¿µÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, SSS¿¡ À־ ¹Ì·¡ÀÇ º¯È­µéµµ ¶ÇÇÑ ±º´ë¿¡ ¹Ý¿µµÇ¾ú´Ù. ´ëüº¹¹«µµ CO ¿ËÈ£Àڵ鵵 2Â÷¼¼°è´ëÀüÀÇ CPS üÁ¦·Î ȸ±ÍÇÔÀ» ¿øÄ¡¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. ±×·¯³ª ´Ü¼øÈ÷ COµéÀ» À¯¿¹½ÃŰ´Â °ÍÀº ´ëÁßÀûÀÎ ¼±Åõµ ¾Æ´Ï¾ú´Ù.  ÇÑ ¸óųªÀÇ Â¡º´ À§¿øÈ¸´Â ½ÉÁö¾î CO¿¡ ´ëÇÑ À¯¿¹¿¡ Ç×ÀÇÇϱâ À§ÇÏ¿© »çÀÓÇϱ⵵ ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ÀÌ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÇØ¹ýÀº 1951³âÀÇ [º¸ÆíÀû ±º»ç ÈÆ·Ã ¹× º¹¹«¹ý]À¸·Î ³ª¿ÔÀ¸¸ç, ¿©±â¼­ COµéÀÌ Áö¿ª ¡º´ À§¿øÈ¸µéÀÇ ÁöÈ־Ʒ¡ "±¹°¡Àû Á߿伺À» °¡Áø ¾÷¹«"¸¦ ¼öÇàÇÒ °ÍÀÌ ¿ä±¸µÇ¾ú´Ù. ÀÌ ¾÷¹« ÇÁ·Î±×·¥Àº 1952³â 7¿ù 1ÀÏ ½ÃÇàµÇ¾ú´Ù. ´ëºÎºÐÀÇ COµéÀº µµ¿ò ¾øÀ̵µ ´ëü ¾÷¹«¸¦ ã¾ÒÁö¸¸. ¡º´À§¿øÈ¸µéÀº COµé¿¡°Ô ƯÁ¤ÇÑ Á÷¾÷¿¡ ¹èÄ¡ÇÒ ±ÇÇÑÀ» °¡Áö°Ô µÇ¾ú´Ù. ´ëü º¹¹«¸¦ ÅëÇÏ¿© COÀº º´¿øµé¿¡¼­, Á¾±³Àû ´Üüµé¿¡¼­, ±×¸®°í ´Ù¸¥ ¼ö¸¹Àº ÀÓ¹«µé¿¡ Á¾»çÇÔÀ¸·Î½á ¹Ì±¹¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ±×µéÀÇ Àǹ«¸¦ ÇàÇÏ¿´´Ù.

Both the in-service and alternative service programs were initiated during the Korean War. The Selective Service had not drafted anyone during 1949, and America's sudden involvement in Korea forced a quick re-start of the stalled draft in 1950.54 Because Korea was a "limited" war, it did not require the total mobilization seen during WWII. Therefore, the S.S.S. played a very different role in Korea. Besides providing over a million men for the military, the S.S.S. also actively channeled men into occupations through a complex series of deferments.55 Through the Korean war, the S.S.S. overcame the long-standing American mistrust of conscription, and the draft became, in the words of historian George Flynn, "an accepted part of the political landscape."56 The Selective Service delivered about 1.5 million draftees during the three-year period (fiscal year 1951-1953) of the Korean War.57 Out of that number, only about 25,000 men received C.O. status (12,000 in 1950, 8,000 in 1951, and 5,000 in 1952).58 This represented an increase over the WWII rates, but not substantially so. The increase was likely due to the enactment of a work program instead of CPS camps. After the Korean War, draft calls remained fairly steady.59 From 1955 until 1966 the Selective Service did not deliver more than 200,000 men a year.60 Over 16,000 men were classified I-O from 1951 until 1961.61 The majority of these C.O.s were from historic peace churches, especially the Mennonite Church.62 The National Service Board for Religious Objectors (NSBRO, later the National Interreligious Service Board for Conscientious Objectors [NISBCO]), reported in 1964 that of 12,410 C.O.s surveyed since the alternate service program began, nearly 8,500 were Mennonites. The other pacifist churches, large and small, also contributed a significant number of men.63 The two largest mainstream churches were the Church of Christ and the Methodists, with 194 and 165 men, respectively. Other mainstream groups include Presbyterians (38), Baptists (36), Episcopalians (18), and Roman Catholics (10).64 During this period, C.O.s were overwhelmingly Christian. The NSBRO reported that C.O.s came from ninety-eight Christian groups and seven non-Christian religious groups. Only 1.2 percent of C.O.s listed no religious affiliation.65 

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Çö¿ª ¹× ´ëü º¹¹« ÇÁ·Î±×·¥µéÀº Çѱ¹ÀüÀï µ¿¾È ½ÃÇàµÇ¾ú´Ù. ´ëüº¹¹«´Â 1949³â¿¡ ¾Æ¹«µµ ¡ÁýÇÏÁö ¾Ê¾ÒÀ¸³ª, ¹Ì±¹ÀÇ °©ÀÛ½º·± Çѱ¹Àü °³ÀÔÀº 1950³â¿¡ ÀÌ¹Ì ÁßÁöµÇ¾ú´ø ¡º´À» ½Å¼ÓÇÏ°Ô ´Ù½Ã ½ÃÀÛÇϵµ·Ï ¸¸µé¾ú´Ù. Çѱ¹ÀÇ °æ¿ì´Â Á¦ÇÑÀû" ÀüÀïÀ̾úÀ¸¹Ç·Î, Á¦2Â÷¼¼°è´ëÀü ´ç½Ã¿¡ º¸¿´´ø ÀüüÀû µ¿¿øÀ» ¿ä±¸ÇÏÁö´Â ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. ±×·¯¹Ç·Î SSS´Â Çѱ¹ÀÇ °æ¿ì ¸Å¿ì »óÈ÷ÇÑ ¿ªÇÒÀ» ´ã´çÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±º´ë¸¦ À§ÇØ ¹é¸¸ÀÌ ³Ñ´Â ÀοøµéÀ» Á¦°øÇÏ¿´À» »Ó¸¸ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó, SSS´Â ¶ÇÇÑ º¹ÀâÇÑ À¯¿¹µéÀ» ÅëÇÏ¿© ÀοøµéÀ» Àû±ØÀûÀ¸·Î Á÷¾÷µé¿¡ ¿¬°áÇÏ¿´´Ù. Çѱ¹ÀüÀ» ÅëÇÏ¿©, SSS´Â ¡Áý¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¿À·£ µ¿¾ÈÀÇ ¹Ì±¹ÀεéÀÇ ºÒ½ÅÀ» ±Øº¹ÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, ¡ÁýÀº, ¿ª»ç°¡ George FlynnÀÇ ¸»¿¡ µû¸£¸é, "Á¤Ä¡ dz°æ¿¡¼­ ÀÎÁ¤µÈ ÀϺΰ¡" µÇ¾ú´Ù. ´ëü º¹¹«´Â Çѱ¹Àü »ï³â µ¿¾È (ȸ°è³âµµ 1951-1953)¾à 1¹é 5½Ê¸¸ÀÇ Â¡º´ÀÚ¸¦ À̲ø¾î ³»¾ú´Ù. ±× ¼ýÀÚµé Áß¿¡¼­, ¿ÀÁ÷ 25,000¸íÀÌ COµî±ÞÀ» ¹Þ¾Ò´Ù (1950³â ¿¡ 12,000¸í, 1951³â¿¡ 8,000¸í). À̰ÍÀº 2Â÷ ¼¼°è´ëÀüÀÇ ºñÀ²¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿© »ó½ÂÇÑ °ÍÀÌÁö¸¸, »ó´çÈ÷ Áõ°¡ÇÑ °ÍÀº ¾Æ´Ï´Ù. ±× Áõ°¡´Â CPS ¼ö¿ë¼Òµé ´ë½ÅÀ¸·Î ÇàÇÑ ÀÓ¹« ÇÁ·Î±×·¥À» ½ÃÇàÀ» Åë·¡¼­¶ó°í ÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù. Çѱ¹ ÀüÀïÀÌ ³¡³­ µÚ, ¡º´ ¼ÒÁýÀº »ó´çÈ÷ ²ÙÁØÈ÷ À̾îÁ³´Ù. 1955³â¿¡¼­ 1966³â ±îÁö ´ëü º¹¹«´Â ³â°£ 200,000¸í ÀÌ»óÀº ÀεµÇÏÁö ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. 1951³â ºÎÅÍ 1961³â ±îÁö 16,000¸íÀÌ I-O·Î ºÐ·ùµÇ¾ú´Ù. À̵é COÀÇ ´ëºÎºÐÀº ¿ª»çÀû ÆòÈ­±³È¸µé, ƯÈ÷ ¸Þ³ëÆÄ ±³È¸ÀÇ Ãâ½ÅµéÀÌ´Ù. [Á¾±³Àû °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀ» À§ÇÑ Àü±¹ ºÀ»çȸÀÇ] (NSBRO,  ÈÄÀÏ [¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚ¸¦ À§ÇÑ Àü±¹ ¹üÁ¾±³ ºÀ»çȸÀÇ](NISBCO))´Â, 1964³â º¸°íÇϱ⸦, ´ëü º¹¹« ÇÁ·Î±×·¥ÀÌ ½ÃÀÛµÈ ÈÄ Áý°èµÈ 12,410¸íÀÇ COµé Áß¿¡¼­ °ÅÀÇ 8,500¸íÀÌ ¸Þ³ëÆÄ¶ó°í ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±âŸ ÆòÈ­ ±³È¸µé ¿ª½Ã, Å©´ø ÀÛ´ø, »ó´çÇÑ ¼ýÀÚ°¡ Æ÷ÇԵǾú´Ù. µÎ°³ÀÇ °¡Àå Å« ÁÖ·ù ±³È¸µéÀº ±×¸®½ºµµÀÇ ±³È¸¿Í °¨¸®±³È¸·Î¼­, °¢±â 194¸í°ú 165¸íÀ̾ú´Ù. ´Ù¸¥ ÁÖ·ù ´ÜüµéÀº Àå·Î±³(38), ħ·Ê±³(36), °¨µ¶±³È¸(18), ¹× ·Î¸¶Ä«Å縯(10) µîÀ̾ú´Ù. ÀÌ ±â°£ µ¿¾È, COµéÀº ¾ÐµµÀûÀ¸·Î ±×¸®½ºµµ±³ÀεéÀ̾ú´Ù. NSBRO´Â º¸°íÇϱ⸦, COµéÀº 99°³ÀÇ ±×¸®½ºµµ±³ ´Üü¿Í 9°³ÀÇ ºñ ±×¸®½ºµµ±³ Á¾±³ ´Üüµé·ÎºÎÅÍ ³ª¿Ô´Ù°í ÇÑ´Ù. ¿ÀÁ÷ 1.2%¸¸ÀÌ ºñ Á¾±³Àû ¿¬´ë·Î ¿Ã¶ó ÀÖ¾ú´Ù.

Conclusion 

°á·Ð

When America became militarily involved in Vietnam, the draft was largely the same as it had been in World War II. Except for the changes in alternate service, the administrative framework provided by the Selective Service was remarkably unchanged from WWII. Conscientious objectors were still required to have religious objection to all wars and most C.O.s had historic peace church backgrounds. However, the world in which the C.O. found himself in 1963 was far different from the one in 1940. Conscription was now a fact of life for young men. America was engaged in a "cold war" with the Soviet Union, and the U.S. was about to engage in another "limited war" in Asia. In the last ten years of conscription (1963-1973), the nature of conscientious objection would change a great deal, in large part due to three Supreme Court cases. 

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¹Ì±¹ÀÌ º£Æ®³²°ú ±º»çÀûÀ¸·Î °³ÀԵǾúÀ» ¶§, ¡º´Àº ÁÖ·Î Á¦2Â÷ ¼¼°è´ëÀü¿¡¼­ ÀÖ¾ú´ø °Í°ú ¶È°°¾Ò´Ù. ´ëüº¹¹«¿Í °ü·ÃÇÏ¿© º¯È­µÈ °ÍÀ» Á¦¿ÜÇϰí´Â, ´ëüº¹¹«¿¡ ÀÇÇØ¼­ ±ÔÁ¤µÈ ÇàÁ¤Àû °ñ°ÝÀº Á¦2Â÷¼¼°è´ëÀü°ú µÎ¸£·¯Áö°Ô º¯ÇÑ °ÍÀº ¾ø¾ú´Ù. ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÚµéÀº ¿©ÀüÈ÷ ¸ðµç ÀüÀï¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿© Á¾±³ÀûÀ¸·Î °ÅºÎÇÔÀÌ ¿ä±¸µÇ¾ú°í, ´ëºÎºÐÀÇ COµéÀº ¿ª»çÀû ÆòÈ­±³È¸ÀÇ ¹è°æÀ» Áö´Ï°í ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ±×·¯³ª, 1963³â COµéÀÌ Ã³ÇØÀÖ´ø ¼¼°è´Â 1940³â´ëÀÇ °Í°ú´Â »ç¹µ ´Þ¶ú´Ù. ¡ÁýÀº ÀþÀº »ç¶÷µé¿¡°Ô À־ ÀÌÁ¦ »îÀÇ »ç½ÇÀÇ Çϳª¿´´Ù. ¹Ì±¹Àº ¼Ò·Ã°ú "³ÃÀü"¿¡ Âü¿©Çϰí ÀÖÀ¸¸ç, ¼Ò·ÃÀº ¾Æ½Ã¿¡¼­ ¶Ç ´Ù¸¥ "Á¦ÇÑ Àü"¿¡ °³ÀÔÇÏ·Á Çϰí ÀÖ´Ù. °ú°Å(1963-1973) 10³â µ¿¾ÈÀÇ Â¡Áý¿¡¼­, ¾ç½ÉÀû °ÅºÎÀÇ ¼º°ÝÀº ¾öû³ª°Ô º¯¸ðÇÏ¿´´Âµ¥, ÁÖ·Î ¼¼°¡ÁöÀÇ ´ë¹ý¿ø ÆÇ·Ê ¶§¹®À̾ú´Ù.

Footnotes


1. Statutes at Large 54 (1940):889. 

2. Selective Service System, Conscientious Objector, 315.

3. J.W. Masland, "Treatment of the Conscientious Objector Under the Selective Service Act of 1940," American Political Science Review36 (August, 1942):698 and Leo P. Crespi, "Attitudes Toward Conscientious Objectors and Some of Their Psychological Correlates," Journal of Psychology18 (July, 1944):81. 

4. Franklin Stevens, If This Be Treason(New York:Peter H. Wyden, Inc., 1970), 60. 

5. Ibid.,61. 

6. V.H. Whitney, "C.O.'s:Second-class Citizens," Nation161 (December 29, 1945):735-736. 

7. E. Raymond Wilson, "Evolution of the C.O. Provisions in the 1940 Conscription Bill," Quaker History 64, vol 1 (1975):12. 

8. George Q Flynn, "Lewis Hershey and the Conscientious Objector:The World War II Experience," Military Affairs 47, vol. 1 (1983):1, and Wilson, "Evolution," 12. 

9. George Q Flynn, LewisB. Hershey:Mr. Selective Service(Chapel Hill:University of North Carolina Press, 1985), 221. 

10. Flynn, LewisB. Hershey, 221. In 1970 the S.S.S. reported a total personnel of 51,914. Of these, 42,997 were "uncompensated personnel."Nineteen thousand of those volunteers worked at the local board level. The rest were doctors, advisors, appeal agents, or state board members. (Selective Service System, Semi-Annual Report of the Director of Selective Service to the Congress of the United States Pursuant to the Universal Military Training and Service Act as Amended(Washington, D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970, report 2),47.

11. Flynn, LewisB. Hershey, 78-79. 

12. Ibid., 75, and Flynn, The Draft,243. 

13. Flynn, "Hershey and the Conscientious Objector," 2. 

14. Ibid., 3. These figures are based on 8,127 cases heard before local boards, and 1,558 cases heard by the presidential appeal board. 

15. Ibid., 4.

16. Ibid., 5. 

17. Statutes at Large 54 (1940):889. 

18. Patricia McNeal, "Catholic Conscientious Objection During World War II," Catholic Historical Review61, no. 2 (1975):237-238. 

19. Although most of the camps were sponsored by the Quakers, Brethren, and Mennonites, some mainstream groups did sponsor camps. Those groups include the Association of Catholic Conscientious Objectors, the American Baptist Home Missionary Society, the Disciples of Christ, the Commission on Christian Social Action of the Evangelical Reformed Church, the Methodist World Peace Commission, and the National Service Board for Religious Objectors. Selective Service System, Conscientious Objector,176. 

20. George Q. Flynn, "Selective Service and the Conscientious Objector," in Michael F. Noone, Jr., ed.,Selective Conscientious Objection: Accommodating Conscience and Security(Boulder, Col.: Westview Press, 1989), 38. 

21. Ibid., 38, and Flynn, "Hershey and the Conscientious Objector," 4-5. 

22. Whitney, "C.O.'s:Second-class Citizens," 736.

23. Albert N. Keim, "Mennonites and Selective Service in World War II:An Ambiguous Relationship," Mennonite Quarterly Review66 no. 4 (1992):524. 

24. Whitney, "C.O.'s:Second-class Citizens," 736. 

25. Ibid.  

26. Keim, "Mennonites and Selective Service," 511. 

27. Joyce Justice, "World War II Civilian Public Conscientious Objector Camps in Oregon," Prologue 23, no. 3 (1991): 270. 

28. Ibid., 267. 

29. In one study at Princeton University, Crespi polled 163 students from March 24-31, 1943. Crespi, "Attitudes Toward Conscientious Objectors," 84. The second survey was published in four parts:Leo P. Crespi, "Public Opinion Toward Conscientious Objectors and some of their Psychological correlates. Journal of Psychology18 (1944):81-117; Leo P. Crespi, "Public Opinion Toward Conscientious Objectors:II. Measurement of national approval-disproval,"Journal of Psychology19 (1945):209-250; Leo P. Crespi, "Public Opinion Toward Conscientious Objectors:III. Intensity of social rejection in stereotype and attitude,"Journal of Psychology19 (1945):251-276; Leo P. Crespi, "Public Opinion Toward Conscientious Objectors:IV. Opinions on Significant Conscientious Objector Issues,"Journal of Psychologyvol. 19 no. 2 (April 1945):277-305. 

30. Crespi, "Attitudes Toward Conscientious Objectors," 82. 

31. Ibid., 91. 32Ibid. 33Ibid. 34Ibid., 115-116. Crespi also tested for differing opinions between religious liberals and conservatives. He did not find religious differences to be a factor. 35Crespi, "Opinions on Significant Conscientious Objector Issues," 277-305. 36Ibid., 306. 37"Kentucky Rules Objector Cannot Teach School," Christian Century60 (July 7, 1943):788. 38Statement of Assistant Attorney General W. Owen Keller of Kentucky in Ibid.

39. Roger Juhnke, "The Perils of Conscientious Objection," Mennonite Life, 34, no. 3 (1979):4-9. 

40. Selective Service System, Conscientious Objector, 320. 

41. These figures are all found in Ibid., 218. I have only listed groups with 100 or more C.O.s. Some large groups with less than 100 C.O.s include Episcopal (81), "Hebrew" (50), and Unitarian (49). 

42. Ibid., 318. According to the S.S.S. (Ibid., 320), in 1936 there were nearly 20 million Catholics in America. 

43. Ferry Bush, "Military Service, Religious Faith, and Acculturation:Mennonite GIs and their Church, 1941-1945," Mennonite Quarterly Review67, no. 3 (1993):261-262. 

44. Ibid., 265. 

45. Keith L. Sprunger, and John D. Thiesen, "Mennonite Military Service in World War II:An Oral History Approach,"Mennonite Quarterly Review66, no. 4 (1992):485.

46. See chapter 4 of Flynn, The Draft.  

47. Department of Defense Directive No. 1315.1 (June 18, 1951), cited in Palmer, "Time to Exorcise," 186. 

48. Ibid.  

49. Ibid. In-service objectors have always represented a small fraction of the conscientious objectors. During the Vietnam war years, in service objectors numbered 30 in 1964, 25 in 1965, 5 in 1966, 9 in 1967, 70 in 1968, 194 in 1969, 357 in 1970, and 879 in 1971. See also Ibid., 196. 

50. Flynn, "Selective Service," in Noone, Selective Conscientious Objection, 41. 

51. Statutes at Large 65 (1951) 86 and Flynn, "Selective Service," in Noone, Selective Conscientious Objection, 41. 

52. "Some Statistics on CO's and the Draft," The Reporter for Conscience' Sake22 (February, 1965):1. 

53. Dirk W. Eitzen, and Timothy R. Falb, "An Overview of the Mennonite I-W Program," Mennonite Quarterly Review 56, no. 4 (1982):368.

54. Flynn, The Draft, 110. 

55. Selective Service System, Semi-Annual Report, 1970, report 2, 47. and Flynn, The Draft, 113. 

56. Flynn, The Draft, 113. 

57. Selective Service System, Semi-Annual Report, 1970, report 2, 47. 

58. Flynn, The Draft, 128. 

59. Selective Service System, Semi-Annual Report, 1970, report 2, 47. 

60. Ibid.  

61. Flynn, "Selective Service," in Noone, Selective Conscientious Objection, 42.

62. Eitzen, "Mennonite I-W Program," 370-371 and "C.O.'s Protest Is Not Silenced," Christian Century77 (October 26, 1960):1238. 

63. The Brethren contributed 1429 C.O.s and the Friends contributed 459. Smaller pacifist groups, like the Old German Baptist Brethren (350), Christadelphians (89), the Russian Molokan (16), and others, also contributed. "Denominational Affiliations," Reporter for Conscience' Sake, 21, no. 10 (November 1964):3. 

64. Ibid

65. "More I-W Statistics," Reporter for Conscience' Sake, 22 (November 1965):3.

¡¡


Introduction ] 1. The Development of Conscientious Objection Through World War I ] [ 2. World War II and the Origin of Modern Conscientious Objection ] 3. Legal History of Conscientious Objection ] 4. Conscientious Objection During the Vietnam War ] 5. The Religious Response to Conscientious Objection ] 6. Conclusion ] Tables and Charts ] Bibliography ]


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