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Home ] [ About Tolstoy ] Works Before 1876 ] Works After 1876 ] A Confession ] What I Believe ] Gospel In Brief ] Kingdom of God ] What Is Art? ] Tolstoy and His Message ] Tolstoy As a Schoolmaster ] Introduction to Tolstoy's Writings ] Non-Violence / Non-Resistant ] Tolstoy Links ] Patriotism and Government ] Thou Shall Not Kill ] To the Tsar and His Assistants ] A Letter to Russian Liberals ] A Letter to a Hindu ] Letter to Gandhi ] To The Working People ] On Non-Resistance ] Last Message to Mankind ]


Intro by Aylmer Maude ] Intro by Flowers ] by Sanderson Beck ] by E.T. Simmons ] [ by Gary Saul Morson ] by Park Noja ] Å罺ÅäÀÌ ¿¬º¸ ]


·¹¿À Å罺ÅäÀÌ
(Leo Tolstoy)

by Gary Saul Morson 

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1 Introduction

1. ¼­·Ð

Leo Tolstoy (Lev Nikolayevich, Count Tolstoy), a master of realist fiction, is best known for his two longest works, War and Peace and Anna Karenina, which are commonly regarded as among the finest novels ever written. War and Peace in particular seems virtually to define this form for many readers and critics. Among Tolstoy's shorter works, The Death of Ivan Ilyich is usually classed among the best examples of the novella. Especially during his last three decades Tolstoy also achieved world renown as a moral and religious teacher. His doctrine of nonresistance to evil had an important influence on Gandhi. Although Tolstoy's religious ideas no longer command the respect they once did, interest in his life and personality has, if anything, increased over the years. Å罺ÅäÀÌ (Lev Nikolayevich, Count Tolstoy)´Â Çö½ÇÁÖÀÇ ¼Ò¼³ÀÇ ´ë°¡·Î¼­, ±×ÀÇ µÎ °¡Áö ÀåÆíÀÎ, ÀüÀï°ú ÆòÈ­ (War and Peace) ¹× ¾È³ª Ä«·¹´Ï³ª (Anna Karenina)·Î À¯¸íÇϸç, ÀÌ ÀÛǰµéÀº Åë»ó ÀÌÁ¦±îÁö ¾²¿©Áø °¡Àå ÈǸ¢ÇÑ ¼Ò¼³µé·Î¼­ ¿©°ÜÁö°í ÀÖ´Ù. ÀüÀï°ú ÆòÈ­´Â ƯÈ÷ »ç½Ç»ó ¸¹Àº µ¶ÀÚµé°ú ºñÆò°¡µéÀ» À§ÇØ ÀÌ·± Çü½ÄÀ» Á¤ÀÇÇÏ´Â °Íó·³ º¸ÀδÙ. Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ ´ÜÆíÀÛµé Áß¿¡¼­, ÀÌ¹Ý Àϸ®Ä¡ÀÇ Á×À½(The Death of Ivan Illyich)Àº º¸Åë ÁßÆí ¼Ò¼³ÀÇ °¡Àå ÈǸ¢ÇÑ ¿¹µé·Î ºÐ·ùµÈ´Ù. ƯÈ÷ ±×ÀÇ ¸¸³âÀÇ »ï½Ê ³â µ¿¾È Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ¶ÇÇÑ µµ´ö ¹× Á¾±³ ¼±»ýÀ¸·Î¼­ ¼¼»óÀÇ ¸í¼ºÀ» ¾ò¾ú´Ù. ±×ÀÇ ½ÅÁ¶ÀÎ ¾Ç¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¹«ÀúÇ×Àº °£µð¿¡°Ô Áß¿äÇÑ ¿µÇâÀ» ³¢ÃÆ´Ù. ºñ·Ï Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ Á¾±³Àû »ç»óµéÀÌ ´õ ÀÌ»ó °ú°Å¿¡ ±×·¨´ø °Íó·³ Á¸°æÀ» ²øÁö´Â ¸øÇÏÁö¸¸, ±×ÀÇ »î°ú ¼º°Ý¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Èï¹Ì´Â, ¹«¾ùº¸´Ùµµ, ¼¼¿ùÀÌ Èê·¯°¡¸é¼­ Áõ°¡µÇ¾ú´Ù.
Most readers will agree with the assessment of the 19th-century British poet and critic Matthew Arnold that a novel by Tolstoy is not a work of art but a piece of life; the 20th-century Russian author Isaak Babel commented that, if the world could write by itself, it would write like Tolstoy. Critics of diverse schools have agreed that somehow Tolstoy's works seem to elude all artifice. Most have stressed his ability to observe the smallest changes of consciousness and to record the slightest movements of the body. What another novelist would describe as a single act of consciousness, Tolstoy convincingly breaks down into a series of infinitesimally small steps. According to the English writer Virginia Woolf, who took for granted that Tolstoy was "the greatest of all novelists," these observational powers elicited a kind of fear in readers, who "wish to escape from the gaze which Tolstoy fixes on us." Those who visited Tolstoy as an old man also reported feelings of great discomfort when he appeared to understand their unspoken thoughts. It was commonplace to describe him as godlike in his powers and titanic in his struggles to escape the limitations of the human condition. Some viewed Tolstoy as the embodiment of nature and pure vitality, others saw him as the incarnation of the world's conscience, but for almost all who knew him or read his works, he was not just one of the greatest writers who ever lived but a living symbol of the search for life's meaning. ´ëºÎºÐÀÇ µ¶ÀÚµéÀº, Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ ¼Ò¼³Àº ¿¹¼ú ÀÛǰÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó »îÀÇ ÆÄÆíÀÌ´Ù¶ó°í ÇÑ,  19¼¼±â ¿µ±¹ÀÇ ½ÃÀÎÀÌÀÚ ºñÆò°¡ÀÎ ¸ÅÆ© ¾Æ³îµå Æò°¡¿¡ µ¿ÀÇÇÒ °ÍÀÌ´Ù; 20¼¼±âÀÇ ·¯½Ã¾Æ ÀÛ°¡ÀÎ ¾ÆÀÌ»è ¹Ùº§Àº ³íÆòÇϱ⸦, ¸¸ÀÏ ¼¼»óÀÌ ½º½º·Î ±ÛÀ» ¾µ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù¸é, Å罺ÅäÀÌó·³ ¾µ °ÍÀÌ´Ù¶ó°í ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ´Ù¾çÇÑ ÇÐÆÄÀÇ ºñÆò°¡µéÀÌ ¾î·µç Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ ÀÛǰµéÀº ¸ðµç ³ó°£µéÀ» ºüÁ®³ª°¡´Â °Íó·³ º¸ÀδÙ. ´ëºÎºÐÀÇ ºñÆò°¡µéÀº ÀǽĿ¡ ´ëÇÑ Áö±ØÈ÷ ÀÛÀº º¯È­µéµµ °üÂûÇÏ¸ç ½ÅüÀÇ ¹Ì¹ÌÇÑ ¿òÁ÷Àӵ鵵 ±â·ÏÇÏ´Â ±×ÀÇ ´É·ÂÀ» °­Á¶ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ´Ù¸¥ ¼Ò¼³°¡µéÀº ÀǽÄÀÇ ÇÑ °¡Áö ´ÜÀÏÇÑ ÇàÀ§·Î¼­ ¹¦»çÇÏ´Â °ÍÀ», Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ÀÏ·ÃÀÇ ¹«ÇÑÈ÷ ÀÛÀº ´Ü°è·Î ±×·²µíÇÏ°Ô Âɰ³¾î ³ª°£´Ù. ¿µ±¹ÀÇ ÀÛ°¡ÀÎ ¹öÁö´Ï¾Æ ¿ïÇÁ¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ±×´Â ´ç¿¬È÷ Å罺ÅäÀ̸¦ "¸ðµç ¼Ò¼³°¡µé Áß¿¡¼­ °¡Àå ÈǸ¢ÇÏ´Ù"°í ¿©°å´Âµ¥, ÀÌ¿Í °°Àº °üÂû·ÂµéÀº µ¶Àڵ鿡°Ô ÀÏÁ¾ÀÇ µÎ·Á¿òÀ» ²ø¾î³»¾úÀ¸¸ç, ±×µéÀº "Å罺ÅäÀ̰¡ ¿ì¸®µé À§¿¡ °íÁ¤Çϰí ÀÖ´Â ½Ã¼±À¸·ÎºÎÅÍ µµ¸Á°¡°í ½Í¾î ÇÑ´Ù"°í ¸»Çß´Ù. ¸¸³âÀÇ Å罺ÅäÀ̸¦ ¹æ¹®ÇÑ »ç¶÷µé ¿ª½Ã ±×°¡ ÀڽŵéÀÇ ³»¹ñÁö ¾ÊÀº »ç»óµéÀ» ÀÌÇØÇϰí ÀÖ´Â °Íó·³ º¸¿´À» ¶§ÀÇ ¹«Ã´ ºÒÆíÇÔ ´À³¦µéÀ» À̾߱â ÇÏ¿´´Ù.  Å罺ÅäÀ̸¦ ±×ÀÇ ´É·Âµé¿¡¼­ ½Åó·³ ±×¸®°í Àΰ£ÀÇ Á¶°ÇµéÀÇ Á¦¾àµéÀ» Å»ÇÇÇÏ·Á´Â ±×ÀÇ ÅõÀïµé¿¡¼­ °ÅÀÎÀ¸·Î ¹¦»çÇÏ´Â °ÍÀº ÈçÇÑ ÀÏÀ̾ú´Ù. ¾î¶² »ç¶÷µéÀº Å罺ÅäÀ̸¦ ÀÚ¿¬°ú ¼ø¼öÇÑ È°·ÂÀÇ Çö½ÅÀ¸·Î º¸¾ÒÀ¸¸ç, ´Ù¸¥ »ç¶÷µéÀº ±×¸¦ ¼¼»óÀÇ ¾ç½ÉÀÇ È­½ÅÀ¸·Î º¸¾ÒÀ¸³ª, ±×¸¦ ¾Ë°í ÀÖ´Â ¶Ç´Â ±×ÀÇ ÀÛǰµéÀ» ÀÐÀº °ÅÀÇ ¸ðµç »ç¶÷µé¿¡°Ô À־, ±×´Â ´ÜÁö ÀÌÁ¦±îÁö »ýÁ¸ÇÏ¿´´ø °¡Àå À§´ëÇÑ ÀÛ°¡µé ÁßÀÇ ÇÑ »ç¶÷ÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó »îÀÇ Àǹ̸¦ Ž»öÇÏ´Â »ì¾ÆÀÖ´Â »ó¡À̾ú´Ù. 
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2 Early years.

2. ÃʱâÀÇ »î

The scion of prominent aristocrats, Tolstoy was born on Aug. 28 (Sept. 9, New Style), 1828, at the family estate of Yasnaya Polyana (about 130 miles [210 kilometres] south of Moscow in Tula province), where he was to live the better part of his life and write his most important works. His mother, Mariya Nikolayevna, née Princess Volkonskaya, died before he was two years old, and his father Nikolay Ilich, Count Tolstoy, followed her in 1837. His grandmother died 11 months later, and then his next guardian, his aunt Aleksandra, in 1841. Tolstoy and his four siblings were then transferred to the care of another aunt in Kazan, in western Russia. Tolstoy remembered a cousin who lived at Yasnaya Polyana, Tatyana Aleksandrovna Yergolskaya ("Aunt Toinette," as he called her), as the greatest influence on his childhood, and later, as a young man, Tolstoy wrote some of his most touching letters to her. Despite the constant presence of death, Tolstoy remembered his childhood in idyllic terms. His first published work, Detstvo (1852; Childhood), was a fictionalized and nostalgic account of his early years. Áß¿äÇÑ ±ÍÁ·µéÀÇ ÈÄ¿¹·Î¼­, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â 1828³â 8¿ù 28ÀÏ(½Å·Â 9¿ù 9ÀÏ), ¾ß½º³ª¾ß Æú¸®³ª¾ß(¸ð½ºÅ©¹Ù ³²ÂÊÀÇ ¾à 130¸¶ÀÏ(210ų·Î¹ÌÅÍ)¿¡ ÀÖ´Â Åø¶ó Áö¹æ) ÀÇ °¡Á· ÀúÅÿ¡¼­ Ãâ»ýÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, ±×°÷¿¡¼­ ±×´Â ±×ÀÇ »îÀÇ Á»´õ ³ªÀº ÀϺθ¦ »ì¾ÒÀ¸¸ç ±×ÀÇ ´ëºÎºÐÀÇ Áß¿äÇÑ ÀÛǰµéÀ» ¾²°Ô µÇ¾ú´Ù. ±×ÀÇ ¾î¸Ó´ÏÀÎ, ¸¶¸®¾ß ´ÏÄݶ󿹺곪´Â, ÀÌÀü¿¡ º¼ÄܽºÄ«¾ß °øÁַμ­ ¾Ë·ÁÁ® ÀÖ¾úÀ¸¸ç, ±×°¡ 2»ìÀÌ µÇ¾úÀ» ¶§ »ç¸ÁÇßÀ¸¸ç, ±×ÀÇ ¾Æ¹öÁö ´ÏÄݶóÀÌ Àϸ®Ä¡, Å罺ÅäÀÌ ¹éÀÛÀº, 1837³â ±×³àÀÇ µÚ¸¦ µû¶ó°¬´Ù. ±×ÀÇ ÇÒ¸Ó´Ï´Â 11°³¿ù µÚ¿¡ »ç¸ÁÇÏ¿´°í, ±×¸®°í ³ª¼­ ´ÙÀ½Àº ±×ÀÇ ÈİßÀÎÀÌ¸ç ¼÷¸ðÀÎ ¾Ë·º»êµå¶ó°¡ 1841³â »ç¸ÁÇÏ¿´´Ù. Å罺ÅäÀÌ¿Í ±×ÀÇ ³× ¸íÀÇ ÇüÁ¦µéÀº ±× ÈÄ ¼­ºÎ ·¯½Ã¾ÆÀÇ Ä«ÀÜ¿¡ ÀÖ´Â ´Ù¸¥ ¼÷¸ðÀÇ º¸È£·Î ¿Å°ÜÁ³´Ù. Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ¾ß½º³ª¾ß Æú¸®³ª¾ß¿¡ »ì¾Ò´ø ´Ù¸¥ »çÃÌÀÎ, ŸƼ¾ß³ª ¾Ë·º»êµå·Îºê³ª ¿¹¸£°ñ½ºÅ¸¾ß¸¦, ±×ÀÇ À¯³â±â¿¡ °¡Àå ¸·´ëÇÑ ¿µÇâÀ» ÁÖ¾ú´Ù°í ±â¾ïÇÏ¿´°í, ÈÄÀÏ, û³âÀ¸·Î¼­, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ±×³à¿¡°Ô ±×ÀÇ °¡Àå °¨µ¿ÀûÀÎ ¸î ÆíÀÇ ÆíÁöµéÀ»  ½è¾ú´Ù. ²÷ÀÓ¾øÀÌ ¸Â°Ô µÇ´Â Á×À½¿¡µµ ºÒ±¸Çϰí, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿î ¿ë¾î·Î ±×ÀÇ À¯³â±â¸¦ ±â¾ïÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×ÀÇ ÃÖÃÊ ÃâÆÇÀÛǰÀÎ, µ¥½ºÆ®º¸(1852; Detstvo, Childhood)´Â, ±×ÀÇ Ãʳ⿡ °üÇÑ Ç㱸ÀûÀ̸ç Çâ¼ö ¾î¸° À̾߱⿴´Ù.
Educated at home by tutors, Tolstoy enrolled in the University of Kazan in 1844 as a student of Oriental languages. His poor record soon forced him to transfer to the less demanding law faculty, where he wrote a comparison of the French political philosopher Charles de Secondat de Montesquieu's The Spirit of Laws and Catherine II the Great's nakaz (instructions for a law code). Interested in literature and ethics, he was drawn to the works of the English novelists Laurence Sterne and Charles Dickens and, especially, to the writings of the French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau; in place of a cross, he wore a medallion with a portrait of Rousseau. But he spent most of his time trying to be comme il faut (socially correct), drinking, gambling, and engaging in debauchery. After leaving the university in 1847 without a degree, Tolstoy returned to Yasnaya Polyana, where he planned to educate himself, to manage his estate, and to improve the lot of his serfs. Despite frequent resolutions to change his ways, he continued his loose life during stays in Tula, Moscow, and St. Petersburg. In 1851 he joined his older brother Nikolay, an army officer, in the Caucasus and then entered the army himself. He took part in campaigns against the native Caucasian tribes and, soon after, in the Crimean War (1853-56). °¡Á¤±³»çµé¿¡°Ô Áý¿¡¼­ ±³À°¹ÞÀº µÚ¿¡, 1844³â Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â Ä«ÀÜ ´ëÇп¡ µ¿¾ç ¾îÇÐ ÇлýÀ¸·Î µî·ÏÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×ÀÇ ÇüÆí¾ø´Â ¼ºÀûÀº °ð ±×·Î ÇÏ¿©±Ý ´ú ¾Ð¹ÚÀ» ÁÖ´Â ¹ý·üÇкηΠ¿Å±âµµ·Ï ¸¸µé¾úÀ¸¸ç, ±×°÷¿¡¼­ ±×´Â ÇÁ¶û½ºÀÇ Á¤Ä¡ öÇÐÀÚÀÎ ¸ùÅ×½ºÅ°ÀÇ Âû½º 2¼¼ÀÇ ¹ýÀÇ Á¤½Å°ú ±îÆ®¸°´À 2¼¼ ´ëÁ¦ÀÇ ³ªÄ«Áî(¹ý·ü ¸í·É)ÀÇ ºñ±³¸¦ ½è´Ù. ¹®Çаú À±¸®Çп¡ Èï¹Ì¸¦ °¡Á³À¸¹Ç·Î, ±×´Â ¿µ±¹ÀÇ ¼Ò¼³°¡µéÀÎ ·Î·»½º ½ºÅÏ ¹× Âû½º µðŲ½ºÀÇ ÀÛǰµé¿¡, Ưº°È÷, ÇÁ¶û½º öÇÐÀÚÀÎ ÀåÀÚÅ© ·ç¼ÒÀÇ ÀÛǰµé¿¡  ½ÉÃëÇÏ¿´´Ù; ½ÊÀÚ°¡ ´ë½Å¿¡ ±×´Â ·ç¼ÒÀÇ ÃÊ»óÈ­¸¦ ´ãÀº ¸Þ´ÞÀ» ¸Þ°í ´Ù´Ñ °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ±×·¯³ª ±×´Â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ½Ã°£ ´ëºÎºÐÀ» (»çȸÀûÀ¸·Î ¹Ù¸¥) ǰÀ§, À½ÁÖ, µµ¹Ú ¹× ³­ºÀ¿¡ ¼ÒºñÇß´Ù. 1847³â ÇÐÀ§ ¾øÀÌ ´ëÇÐÀ» ¶°³­ µÚ, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ¾ß½º³ª¾ß Æú¸®¾ß³ª¿¡ µ¹¾Æ °¬À¸¸ç, ±×°÷¿¡¼­ ±×´Â µ¶ÇÐÇϸç, ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ºÎµ¿»êÀ» °ü¸®Çϰí, ±×ÀÇ ³ó³ëµéÀÇ ¿î¸íÀ» °³¼±ÇÒ °ÍÀ» °èȹÇÏ¿´´Ù. ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ¹æ½ÄµéÀ» ¹Ù²Ù·ÁÇÏ´Â ÀæÀº °á½Éµé¿¡µµ ºÒ±¸Çϰí, Åø¶ó, ¸ð½ºÅ©¹Ù ¹× ¼º ÆäÅ×½ººÎ¸£Å©¿¡ üÀçÇÏ´Â µ¿¾È ´À½¼ÇÑ »îÀ» °è¼ÓÇÏ¿´´Ù. 1851³â¿¡ ±×´Â ÄÚÄ«¼­½º¿¡ ÀÖ´Â ±×ÀÇ ÇüÀÎ ´ÏÄݶóÀÌ¿Í ÇÔ²²ÇÏ¿´´Âµ¥ ±×´Â À°±º Àå±³¿´À¸¸ç, ±× ÈÄ Àڽŵµ À°±º¿¡ ÀÔ´ëÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×´Â ÅäÂø¹ÎÀÎ ÄÚÄ«¼­½º Á¾Á·µé¿¡ ¸Â¼­¼­ ÀüÅõ¿¡ Âü°¡ÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, °ð À̾, Å©¸®¹Ì¾Æ ÀüÀï(1853-56)¿¡ Âü°¡ÇÏ¿´´Ù.
In 1847 Tolstoy began keeping a diary, which became his laboratory for experiments in self-analysis and, later, for his fiction. With some interruptions, Tolstoy kept his diaries throughout his life, and he is therefore one of the most copiously documented writers who ever lived. Reflecting the life he was leading, his first diary begins by confiding that he may have contracted a venereal disease. The early diaries record a fascination with rule-making, as Tolstoy composed rules for diverse aspects of social and moral behavior. They also record the writer's repeated failure to honor these rules, his attempts to formulate new ones designed to ensure obedience to old ones, and his frequent acts of self-castigation. Tolstoy's later belief that life is too complex and disordered ever to conform to rules or philosophical systems perhaps derives from these futile attempts at self-regulation. 1847³â Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â Àϱ⸦ ¾²±â ½ÃÀÛÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, ±×°ÍÀº ÀÚ¾Æ ºÐ¼®¿¡ À־ ½ÇÇèµé, ±×¸®°í ÈÄÀÏ¿¡ ±×ÀÇ ¼Ò¼³ ¹®ÇÐÀ» À§ÇÑ ½ÇÇè½ÇÀÌ µÇ¾ú´Ù. ÀϺΠÁß´ÜµÈ °÷µµ ÀÖÁö¸¸, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ±×ÀÇ ÀϱâµéÀ» Æò»ý µ¿¾È ½á³ª°¬À¸¸ç, ±×·¯¹Ç·Î ±×´Â ÀÌÁ¦²¯ »ì¾Æ¿Â °¡Àå dzºÎÇÏ°Ô ±â·ÏÀ» ³²±ä ÀÛ°¡µé ÁßÀÇ ÇϳªÀÌ´Ù. ±×°¡ ¿µÀ§Çϰí ÀÖ¾ú´ø »îÀ» ȸ°íÇϸ鼭, ±×ÀÇ Ã¹ ¹øÂ° Àϱâ´Â ¼ºº´¿¡ °É¸° °Í °°´Ù°í Åоî³õÀ¸¸é¼­ ½ÃÀÛÇÑ´Ù. ÃʱâÀÇ ÀϱâµéÀº ±ÔÄ¢ ¸¸µé±â¿¡ ¸Å·áµÇ¾úÀ½À» ±â·ÏÇϴµ¥, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â »çȸÀû ¹× µµ´öÀû Çൿ¿¡ °üÇÑ ´Ù¾çÇÑ Çö»óµé¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ±ÔÄ¢µéÀ» ¸¸µé¾î °¬´Ù. ±×°ÍµéÀº ¶ÇÇÑ ÀÌµé ±ÔÄ¢µéÀ» Á¸ÁßÇÔ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ µÇÇ®À̵Ǵ ÀÛ°¡ÀÇ ½ÇÆÐ¸¦ ±â·ÏÇϸç, ±×´Â ¿¾ °Íµé¿¡ ´ëÇÑ º¹Á¾, ±×¸®°í ±×ÀÇ ÀæÀº ÀÚÃ¥ ÇàÀ§µéÀ» È®½ÇÈ÷ ÇÏ·Á°í °í¾ÈµÈ »õ·Î¿î °ÍµéÀ» ±ÔÁ¤ÇÏ·Á ½ÃµµÇÏ¿´´Ù. 
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3 First publications.

3. óÀ½ÀÇ ÀÛǰµé.

Concealing his identity, Tolstoy submitted Childhood for publication in Sovremennik ("The Contemporary"), a prominent journal edited by the poet Nikolay Nekrasov. Nekrasov was enthusiastic, and the pseudonymously published work was widely praised. During the next few years Tolstoy published a number of stories based on his experiences in the Caucasus, including "Nabeg" (1853; "The Raid") and his three sketches about the Siege of Sevastopol during the Crimean War: "Sevastopol v dekabre mesyatse" ("Sevastopol in December"), "Sevastopol v maye" ("Sevastopol in May"), and "Sevastopol v avguste 1855 goda" ("Sevastopol in August"; all published 1855-56). The first sketch, which deals with the courage of simple soldiers, was praised by the tsar. Written in the second person as if it were a tour guide, this story also demonstrates Tolstoy's keen interest in formal experimentation and his lifelong concern with the morality of observing other people's suffering. The second sketch includes a lengthy passage of a soldier's stream of consciousness (one of the early uses of this device) in the instant before he is killed by a bomb. In the story's famous ending, the author, after commenting that none of his characters are truly heroic, asserts that "the hero of my story--whom I love with all the power of my soul . . . who was, is, and ever will be beautiful--is the truth." Readers ever since have remarked on Tolstoy's ability to make such "absolute language," which usually ruins realistic fiction, aesthetically effective. ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ½ÅºÐÀ» ¼û±â°í¼­, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â À¯³â½ÃÀýÀ», ½ÃÀÎ ´ÏÄݶóÀÌ ³×Å©¶ó¼ÒÇÁ°¡ ÆíÁýÀåÀÎ À¯¸íÇÑ ÀâÁöÀÎ, ¼Òºê·¹¸Þ´ÏÅ© ("Çö´ëÀÎ")¿¡¼­ ÃâÆÇÇϱâ À§ÇØ ±â°íÇÏ¿´´Ù. ³×Å©¶ó¼ÒÇÁ´Â ¿­±¤ÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, À͸íÀ¸·Î ÃâÆÇµÈ ÀÛǰÀº µÎ·ç ĪÂù ¹Þ¾Ò´Ù. ´ÙÀ½ ¸î ³â µ¿¾È Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ÄÚÄ«¼­½º¿¡¼­ÀÇ ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ °æÇèµéÀ» Åä´ë·ÎÇÑ ¸¹Àº À̾߱âµéÀ» ÃâÆÇÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, "Nabeg"(1853, "½À°Ý") ¹× Å©¸®¹Ì¾Æ ÀüÀï ÁßÀÇ ¼¼¹Ù½ºÅäÆú Æ÷À§¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¼¼°¡Áö ½ºÄÉÄ¡µé - "Sevastopol v dekabre mesyatse " ("12¿ùÀÇ ¼¼¹Ù½ºÅäÆú"), "Sevastopol v maye " ("5¿ùÀÇ ¼¼¹Ù½ºÅäÆú"), ±×¸®°í  "Sevastopol v avguste 1855 goda"  ("8¿ùÀÇ ¼¼¹Ù½ºÅäÆú"; ¸ðµÎ 1855-56³â¿¡ ÃâÆÇµÇ¾úÀ½) - ÀÌ Æ÷ÇԵǾú´Ù. óÀ½ÀÇ ½ºÄÉÄ¡´Â, ¹«¸íÀÇ º´»çµéÀÇ ¿ë±â¸¦ ´Ù·ç¾ú´Âµ¥, ȲÁ¦¿¡ ÀÇÇØ ĪÂù ¹Þ¾Ò´Ù. ¸¶Ä¡ ¿©Çà ¾È³»Ã³·³ 2ÀÎĪÀ¸·Î ¾²¿©Á³À¸¸ç, ÀÌ À̾߱â´Â ¿ª½Ã Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ ¾ö°ÝÇÑ ½ÇÇè¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¿¹¸®ÇÑ °ü½É°ú ´Ù¸¥ »ç¶÷µéÀÇ °íÅëÀ» °üÂûÇÔ¿¡ À־ÀÇ µµ´ö¼º¿¡ °üÇÑ ±×ÀÇ Æò»ýÀÇ °ü½ÉÀ» Áõ°ÅÇØÁØ´Ù. µÎ ¹øÂ°ÀÇ ½ºÄÉÄ¡´Â Æø°Ý¿¡ Á×±â  Á÷ÀüÀÇ º´»çÀÇ (ÀÌ·± ÀåÄ¡ÀÇ ÃʱâÀÇ »ç¿ëµé ÁßÀÇ ÇϳªÀÎ) ÀǽÄÀÇ È帧À» ´ãÀº ±ä ±¸ÀýÀ» Æ÷ÇÔÇÑ´Ù. À̾߱âÀÇ À¯¸íÇÑ ¸»¹Ì¿¡¼­, ÀÛ°¡´Â, ±×ÀÇ ¾î´À µîÀåÀι°µµ ÁøÁ¤À¸·Î ¿ª»çÀûÀÌ ¾Æ´ÔÀ» ¾ð±ÞÇÑ µÚ¿¡, "³ªÀÇ À̾߱âÀÇ ¿µ¿õ -- ³ª´Â ¿µÈ¥ÀÇ ¸ðµç ÈûÀ¸·Î ±×¸¦ »ç¶ûÇÑ´Ù... ±×´Â, Áö±Ýµµ ±×¸®°í ¾ðÁ¦³ª ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿ï °ÍÀÌ´Ù -- Àº Áø¸®ÀÌ´Ù"¶ó°í ´Ü¾ðÇÑ´Ù. µ¶ÀÚµéÀº ±× ÀÌÈÄ·Î Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ ±×¿Í °°ÀÌ "Àý´ë ¾ð¾î"¸¦ ±¸»çÇÏ´Â ´É·Â¿¡ ÁÖ¸ñÀ» ÇØ¿ÔÀ¸¸ç, ÀÌ ¾ð¾î´Â ÈçÈ÷ ¹ÌÇÐÀûÀ¸·Î È¿°úÀûÀÎ Çö½ÇÁÖÀÇÀû ¼Ò¼³¹®ÇÐÀ» ºØ±«½ÃŲ´Ù.  
After the Crimean War Tolstoy resigned from the army and was at first hailed by the literary world of St. Petersburg. But his prickly vanity, his refusal to join any intellectual camp, and his insistence on his complete independence soon earned him the dislike of the radical intelligentsia. He was to remain throughout his life an "archaist," opposed to prevailing intellectual trends. In 1857 Tolstoy traveled to Paris and returned after having gambled away his money. Å©¸®¹Ì¾Æ ÀüÀï ÈÄ¿¡ Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ±º´ë¿¡¼­ ¹°·¯³µÀ¸¸ç Á¦ÀÏ ¸ÕÀú ¼º ÆäÅ×½ººÎ¸£Å©ÀÇ ¹®Çм¼°è¿¡¼­ ȯ¿µ ¹Þ¾Ò´Ù. ±×·¯³ª ±×ÀÇ °¡½Ã µ¸Ä£ ÀÚ¸¸½É, ¾î¶² ÁöÀû Áø¿µ¿¡µµ °¡ÀÔÇÒ °Í¿¡ ´ëÇÑ °ÅºÎ, ±×¸®°í ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ¿ÏÀüÇÑ µ¶¸³ÀÇ °íÁýÀº °ð ±ÞÁøÀûÀÎ Áö½ÄÀεéÀÇ ¹Ý°¨À» ºÒ·¯¿Ô´Ù. ±×´Â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ Æò»ýÀ» ÅëÇÏ¿© "ÀǰíÁÖÀÇÀÚ(ëôͯñ«ëùíº)"·Î ÀÖÀ¸¸é¼­, Áö¹èÀûÀÎ ÁöÀû °æÇâµé°ú ¹Ý¸ñÇÏ¿´´Ù. 1857³â¿¡ Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ÆÄ¸®¸¦ ¿©ÇàÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ µ·À» µµ¹ÚÀ¸·Î ³¯¸° µÚ¿¡ µ¹¾Æ¿Ô´Ù.
After his return to Russia, he decided that his real vocation was pedagogy, and so he organized a school for peasant children on his estate. After touring western Europe to study pedagogical theory and practice, he published 12 issues of a journal, Yasnaya Polyana (1862-63), which included his provocative articles "Progress i opredeleniye obrazovaniya" ("Progress and the Definition of Education"), which denies that history has any underlying laws, and "Komu u kogu uchitsya pisat, krestyanskim rebyatam u nas ili nam u krestyanskikh rebyat?" ("Who Should Learn Writing of Whom: Peasant Children of Us, or We of Peasant Children?"), which reverses the usual answer to the question. Tolstoy married Sofya (Sonya) Andreyevna Bers, the daughter of a prominent Moscow physician, in 1862 and soon transferred all his energies to his marriage and the composition of War and Peace. Tolstoy and his wife had 13 children, of whom 10 survived infancy. ·¯½Ã¾Æ¿¡ µ¹¾Æ ¿Â ÈÄ¿¡, ±×´Â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ÁøÁ¤ÇÑ ¼Ò¸íÀº ±³À°À̶ó°í ¸¶À½¸Ô¾ú´Ù, ±×·¡¼­ ±×´Â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ »çÀ¯Áö¿¡ ³ó¹Î ÀÚ³àµéÀ» À§ÇÑ Çб³¸¦ ¼¼¿ü´Ù. ±³À° ÀÌ·Ð ¹× ½ÇÁ¦¸¦ °øºÎÇϱâ À§ÇÏ¿© ¼­ºÎ À¯·´À» ¿©ÇàÇÑ µÚ¿¡, ±×´Â 12È£ÀÇ ÀâÁö, Yasnaya Polyana (1862-63)¸¦ ¹ßÇàÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, À̰͵鿡´Â ±×ÀÇ µµ¹ßÀûÀÎ ³í¹®µéÀÎ "Progress i opredeleniye obrazovaniya" ("Áøº¸ ¹× ±³À°ÀÇ Á¤ÀÇ") - ¿©±â¼­ ¿ª»ç°¡ ¾î¶² ³»ÀçÀûÀÎ ¹ýÄ¢µéÀÌ °¡Áö°í ÀÖ´Ù´Â °ÍÀ» ºÎÀÎÇÑ´Ù - , ±×¸®°í  "Komu u kogu uchitsya pisat, krestyanskim rebyatam u nas ili nam u krestyanskikh rebyat?" ("´©°¡ ´©±¸ÀÇ ÀÛǰÀ» Àоî¾ß¸¸ Çϴ°¡: ¿ì¸®ÀÇ ÀÚ³àµéÀÎ ³óºÎ ¾Æ´Ï¸é ³óºÎÀÇ ÀÚ³àµéÀÎ ¿ì¸®?") - ¿©±â¼­ ¹®Á¦¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Åë»óÀûÀÎ ´äº¯À» µÚÁý´Â´Ù - ¸¦ Æ÷ÇÔÇÏ¿´´Ù. Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â 1862³â Àú¸íÇÑ ¸ð½ºÅ©¹ÙÀÇ ³»°ú ÀÇ»çÀÇ µþÀÎ ¼ÒÇÇ¾ß (¼Ò³Ä) ¾Èµå·¹¿¹ºê³ª º£¸£½º¿Í °áÈ¥ÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, °ð ±×ÀÇ ¸ðµç ÈûµéÀ» ±×ÀÇ °áÈ¥ ¹× ÀüÀï°ú ÆòÈ­ÀÇ ÁýÇÊ¿¡ ½ñ¾Ò´Ù. Å罺ÅäÀÌ¿Í ±×ÀÇ ¾Æ³»´Â 13¸íÀÇ ÀÚ³àµéÀ» ³º¾ÒÀ¸¸ç, ±×µé Áß 10¸íÀÌ À¯¾Æ±â¸¦ ³Ñ°å´Ù.
Tolstoy's works during the late 1850s and early 1860s experimented with new forms for expressing his moral and philosophical concerns. To Childhood he soon added Otrochestvo (1854; Boyhood) and Yunost (1857; Youth). A number of stories centre on a single semiautobiographical character, Dmitry Nekhlyudov, who later reappeared as the hero of Tolstoy's novel Resurrection. In "Lyutsern" (1857; "Lucerne"), Tolstoy uses the diary form first to relate an incident, then to reflect on its timeless meaning, and finally to reflect on the process of his own reflections. "Tri smerti" (1859; "Three Deaths") describes the deaths of a noblewoman who cannot face the fact that she is dying, of a peasant who accepts death simply, and, at last, of a tree, whose utterly natural end contrasts with human artifice. Only the author's transcendent consciousness unites these three events. 1850³â´ë¿Í 1960³â´ëÀÇ Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ ÀÛǰµéÀº ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ µµ´öÀû ¹× öÇÐÀû °ü½ÉµéÀ» Ç¥ÇöÇÏ·Á´Â »õ·Î¿î Çü½ÄµéÀ» °¡Áö°í ½ÇÇèÇÏ¿´´Ù. À¯³â½ÃÀý¿¡ À̾ ±×´Â °ð Otrochestvo (1854; ¼Ò³â½ÃÀý) ±×¸®°í Yunost (1857; û³â)À» Ãß°¡ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¸¹Àº À̾߱âµéÀÌ À¯ÀÏÇÑ ¹ÝÀÚ¼­ÀüÀûÀÎ ÁÖÀΰøÀÎ, µå¹ÌÆ®¸® ³×Ŭ·çµµÇÁ¿¡ ÁýÁߵǾîÀÖÀ¸¸ç, ±×´Â ÈÄÀÏ Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ ¼Ò¼³ÀÎ ºÎȰÀÇ ¿µ¿õÀ¸·Î ÀçµîÀåÇÏ¿´´Ù. "Lyutsern"(1857; "·ç¼±")¿¡¼­, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ÇÑ »ç°ÇÀ» ¾ð±ÞÇϱâ À§ÇÏ¿©, ±×¸®°í ³ª¼­ ½Ã°£À» ÃÊ¿ùÇÑ Àǹ̸¦ ¼÷°íÇϸç, ±×¸®°í ¸¶Áö¸·À¸·Î ÀÚ±â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ¸í»óµéÀÇ °úÁ¤¿¡ ´ëÇØ ¼÷°íÇÑ´Ù.  "Tri smerti" (1859; "¼¼ »ç¶÷ÀÇ Á×À½µé")Àº ÀÚ½ÅÀÌ Á׾°í ÀÖ´Ù´Â »ç½ÇÀ» Á÷½ÃÇÒ ¼ö ¾ø´Â ±ÍºÎÀÎÀÇ Á×À½, Á×À½À» ´Ü¼øÈ÷ ¹Þ¾ÆµéÀÌ´Â ÇÑ ³óºÎ, ±×¸®°í ±× öÀúÇÑ ÀÚ¿¬ÀÇ ¸ñÀûÀÌ Àΰ£ÀÇ ±â¸¸°ú ´ëºñµÇ´Â ÇÑ ±×·çÀÇ ³ª¹«ÀÇ Á×À½µéÀ» ¹¦»çÇÑ´Ù. ¿ÀÁ÷ ÀÛ°¡ÀÇ ÃÊ¿ùÀûÀÎ Àǽĸ¸ÀÌ ÀÌµé ¼¼ »ç°ÇµéÀ» ¹­¾î ÁÙ »ÓÀÌ´Ù.
"Kholstomer" (written 1863; revised and published 1886; "Kholstomer: The Story of a Horse") has become famous for its dramatic use of a favourite Tolstoyan device, "defamiliarization"--that is, the description of familiar social practices from the "naive" perspective of an observer who does not take them for granted. Readers were shocked to discover that the protagonist and principal narrator of "Kholstomer" was an old horse. Like so many of Tolstoy's early works, this story satirizes the artifice and conventionality of human society, a theme that also dominates Tolstoy's novel Kazaki (1863; The Cossacks). The hero of this work, the dissolute and self-centred aristocrat Dmitry Olenin, enlists as a cadet to serve in the Caucasus. Living among the Cossacks, he comes to appreciate a life more in touch with natural and biological rhythms. In the novel's central scene, Olenin, hunting in the woods, senses that every living creature, even a mosquito, "is just such a separate Dmitry Olenin as I am myself." Recognizing the futility of his past life, he resolves to live entirely for others. "Kholstomer" (1863³â ÀÛ; 1886³â °³Á¤ ÃâÆÇ; "Kholstomer"; "¸»ÀÇ À̾߱â")´Â Àαâ ÀÖ´Â Å罺ÅäÀÌÀûÀÎ ÀåÄ¡ÀΠ "¾î»öÇÔ"ÀÇ ±ØÀûÀÎ »ç¿ëÀ¸·Î À¯¸íÇØÁ³´Ù--, Áï, "Ä£¼÷ÇÑ »çȸÀû °ü½ÀµéÀ» ´ç¿¬È÷ ¿©±âÁö ¾Ê´Â ÇÑ °üÂûÀÚÀÇ "¼ø¹ÚÇÑ" °üÁ¡¿¡¼­ ½ÃÀ۵Ǵ ¹¦»çÀÌ´Ù. µ¶ÀÚµéÀº "Kholstomer"ÀÇ ÁÖÀΰøÀÌÀÚ ÁÖµÈ È­ÀÚ°¡ ´ÄÀº ¸»ÀÎ °ÍÀ» ¹ß°ßÇϰí´Â Ãæ°Ý ¹Þ¾Ò´Ù. ¹«Ã´ ¸¹Àº Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ Ãʱâ ÀÛǰµéó·³, ÀÌ À̾߱â´Â Àΰ£ »çȸÀÇ ±â¸¸°ú ÀνÀ¼ºÀ» dzÀÚÇϰí ÀÖÀ¸¸ç, ÀÌ´Â ¶ÇÇÑ Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ ¼Ò¼³ Ä«ÀÚŰ( (1863; ÄÚ»çÅ© »ç¶÷µé)¸¦ Áö¹èÇÏ¿´´ø ÁÖÁ¦ÀÌ´Ù. ÀÌ ÀÛǰÀÇ ¿µ¿õÀÎ, ¹æÅÁÇϸç ÀÚ±â Áß½ÉÀûÀÎ ±ÍÁ·, µå¹ÌÆ®¸® ¿Ã·¹´ÑÀÌ,  ÄÚÄ«¼­½º¿¡¼­ º¹¹«Çϱâ À§ÇÏ¿© Àå±³·Î ÀÔ´ëÇÑ´Ù. ÄÚ»çÅ© »ç¶÷µé ¾È¿¡¼­ »ì¸é¼­, ±×´Â ÀÚ¿¬°ú »ýü ¸®µëµé¿¡ ´õ¿í °¡±î¿î »îÀ» °¨»çÈ÷ ¿©±â°Ô µÈ´Ù. ¼Ò¼³ÀÇ Á᫐ Àå¸é¿¡¼­, ¿Ã·¹´ÑÀº, ½£¼Ó¿¡¼­ »ç³ÉÇÏ´ø Áß¿¡, ¸ðµç »ì¾Æ ÀÖ´Â ÇÇÁ¶¹°µéÀº, ½ÉÁö¾î ÇÑ ¸¶¸® ¸ð±â¶óµµ, "¹Ù·Î ³ª ÀڽŰú °°ÀÌ ´ÜÁö ±×·¸°Ô º°°³ÀÇ µå¹ÌÆ®¸® ¿Ã·¹´Ñ"ÀÎ °ÍÀ» Áö°¢ÇÑ´Ù. ÀÚ½ÅÀÌ °ú°Å »îÀÇ ÇêµÊÀ» ±ú´Ý°í¼­, ±×´Â ÀüÀûÀ¸·Î ´Ù¸¥ »ç¶÷µéÀ» À§Çؼ­ »ì±â·Î °á½ÉÇÑ´Ù.
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4 The period of the great novels (1863-77).

4 À§´ëÇÑ ¼Ò¼³µéÀÇ ½Ã±â (1863-77).

Happily married and ensconced with his wife and family at Yasnaya Polyana, Tolstoy reached the height of his creative powers. He devoted the remaining years of the 1860s to writing War and Peace. Then, after an interlude during which he considered writing a novel about Peter I the Great and briefly returned to pedagogy (bringing out reading primers that were widely used), Tolstoy wrote his other great novel, Anna Karenina. These two works share a vision of human experience rooted in an appreciation of everyday life and prosaic virtues. ÇູÇÏ°Ô °áÈ¥ÇÏ¿© ¾ß½º³ª¾ß Æú¸®¾ß³ª¿¡ ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ¾Æ³» ±×¸®°í °¡Á·°ú ¾ÈÂøÇÑ µÚ¿¡, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ Ã¢ÀǷµéÀÇ ÀýÁ¤¿¡ µµ´ÞÇß´Ù. Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â 1860³â´ëÀÇ ³ª¸ÓÁö ÇØµéÀ» ÀüÀï°ú ÆòÈ­ÀÇ ÁýÇÊ¿¡ ½ñ¾Ò´Ù. ±×¸®°í ³ª¼­, ÇÇÅÍ ´ëÁ¦ 1¼¼¿¡ °üÇÑ ¼Ò¼³À» ¾µ °ÍÀ» »ý°¢ÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç Àá½Ã ±³À°(³Î¸® »ç¿ëµÈ µ¶¼­¿ë ÃÊ±Þ µ¶º»À» ¸¸µé¾î ³»¾ú´Ù)À¸·Î µ¹¾Æ°¬´ø ¸·°£ÀÇ ±â°£ µÚ¿¡, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ±×ÀÇ ¶Ç ÇϳªÀÇ À§´ëÇÑ ¼Ò¼³, ¾È³ª Ä«·¹´Ï³ª¸¦ ÁýÇÊÇÏ¿´´Ù. ÀÌµé µÎ ÀÛǰµéÀº ÀÏ»ó»ýȰ°ú Áö·çÇÑ ¹Ì´öÀÇ ÀÌÇØ¿¡ »Ñ¸®¸¦ µÐ Àΰ£ÀÇ °æÇè¿¡ ´ëÇÑ È¯»óÀ» °øÀ¯ÇÑ´Ù.
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4.1 War and Peace.

4.1 ÀüÀï°ú ÆòÈ­

Voyna i mir (1865-69; War and Peace) contains three kinds of material--a historical account of the Napoleonic wars, the biographies of fictional characters, and a set of essays about the philosophy of history. Critics from the 1860s to the present have wondered how these three parts cohere, and many have faulted Tolstoy for including the lengthy essays, but readers continue to respond to them with undiminished enthusiasm. Voyna i mir (1865-69; ÀüÀï°ú ÆòÈ­)´Â ¼¼°¡Áö ÀÚ·áµé - ³ªÆú·¹¿Ë ½Ã±âÀÇ ÀüÀïµé¿¡ °üÇÑ ¿ª»çÀûÀÎ ÇØ¼³, Ç㱸Àû Àι°µéÀÇ Àü±âµé, ±×¸®°í ¿ª»çÀÇ Ã¶Çп¡ °üÇÑ ÀÏ´ÜÀÇ ¼öÇʵé - À» ´ã°í ÀÖ´Ù. 1860 ³â´ëºÎÅÍ ÇöÀç±îÁöÀÇ ºñÆò°¡µéÀº ¾î°¼­ ÀÌµé ¼¼ ºÎºÐµéÀÌ ¹ÐÂøÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´ÂÁö ³î¶ó°í ÀÖÀ¸¸ç, ±×¸®°í ¸¹Àº »ç¶÷µéÀº Å罺ÅäÀ̰¡ Àå¹®ÀÇ ¼öÇʵéÀ» Æ÷ÇÔÇÑ °ÍÀ» Æ®ÁýÀâ°í ÀÖÀ¸³ª, µ¶ÀÚµéÀº ÁÙ¾îµéÁö ¾Ê´Â ¿­Á¤À¸·Î¼­ °è¼ÓÇØ¼­ ±×°Íµé¿¡ ¹ÝÀÀÀ» º¸À̰í ÀÖ´Ù.  
The work's historical portions narrate the campaign of 1805 leading to Napoleon's victory at the Battle of Austerlitz, a period of peace, and Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812. Contrary to generally accepted views, Tolstoy portrays Napoleon as an ineffective, egomaniacal buffoon, Tsar Alexander I as a phrasemaker obsessed with how historians will describe him, and the Russian general Mikhail Kutuzov (previously disparaged) as a patient old man who understands the limitations of human will and planning. Particularly noteworthy are the novel's battle scenes, which show combat as sheer chaos. Generals may imagine they can "anticipate all contingencies," but battle is really the result of "a hundred million diverse chances" decided on the moment by unforeseeable circumstances. In war as in life, no system or model can come close to accounting for the infinite complexity of human behaviour. ÀÛǰÀÇ ¿ª»ç °ü·Ã ºÎºÐÀº ¾Æ¿ì½ºÅ͸®Ã÷ ÀüÀï¿¡¼­ ³ªÆú·¹¿ËÀÇ ½Â¸®·Î À̲ø°í°£ 1805³âÀÇ ÀüÅõ, ÆòÈ­ÀÇ ½Ã±â, ±×¸®°í 1812³â ³ªÆú·¹¿ËÀÇ ·¯½Ã¾Æ ħ°øÀ» ¼­¼úÇϰí ÀÖ´Ù. ÀϹÝÀûÀ¸·Î ÀÎÁ¤µÈ ½Ã°¢µé°ú´Â ¹Ý´ë·Î, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ³ªÆú·¹¿ËÀ» ¹«´ÉÇϸç, ÀÚ±âÁ߽ɱ¤ÀûÀÎ ¾î¸´±¤´ë·Î, ȲÁ¦ÀÎ ¾Ë·º»ê´õ 1¼¼¸¦ ¿ª»ç°¡µéÀÌ ±×¸¦ ¾î¶»°Ô ¹¦»çÇÒ °ÍÀΰ¡¿¡ ÁýÂøÇÏ´Â °ø¾ð°¡·Î, ±×¸®°í ·¯½Ã¾ÆÀÎ À屺ÀÎ ¹ÌÄ«ÀÏ Ä«ÅõÁ¶ÇÁ(ÀÌÀü¿¡´Â ºñ³­ ¹Þ¾Ò´Ù)¸¦ Àΰ£ÀÇ ÀÇÁö¿Í °èȹÀÇ ÇѰèµéÀ» ±ú´Ý°í ÀÖ´Â ÂüÀ»¼º ÀÖ´Â ³ëÀÎÀ¸·Î ¹¦»çÇÑ´Ù. Ưº°È÷ ÁÖ¸ñÇÒ ¸¸ÇÑ °ÍÀº ¼Ò¼³ÀÇ ÀüÀï Àå¸éµé·Î¼­, ÀüÅõ´Â È¥¶õ ±× ÀÚüÀÓÀ» º¸¿©ÁØ´Ù. À屺µéÀº ±×µéÀÌ "¸ðµç ºÎ¼öÀû »ç°ÇµéÀ» ¿¹Ãø"ÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù°í »ó»óÇÒÁö ¸ð¸£Áö¸¸, ÀüÀïÀº Á¤¸»·Î ¿¹ÃøÇÒ ¼ö ¾ø´Â »óȲµé¿¡ ÀÇÇÏ¿© ¼ø°£¿¡ °áÁ¤µÇ´Â "¼ö¹é¸¸ °¡ÁöÀÇ ´Ù¾çÇÑ ¿ì¿¬µé"ÀÇ °á°úÀÌ´Ù. Àλý¿¡¼­¿Í ¸¶Âù°¡Áö·Î ÀüÀï¿¡¼­´Â, ¾î¶² Á¦µµ ¶Ç´Â ¸ðµ¨µµ Àΰ£ ÇൿÀÇ ¹«ÇÑÇÑ º¹À⼺¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¼³¸í¿¡ °¡±îÀÌ ´Ù°¡°¥ ¼ö ¾ø´Ù.
Among the book's fictional characters, the reader's attention is first focused on Prince Andrey Bolkonsky, a proud man who has come to despise everything fake, shallow, or merely conventional. Recognizing the artifice of high society, he joins the army to achieve glory, which he regards as truly meaningful. Badly wounded at Austerlitz, he comes to see glory and Napoleon as no less petty than the salons of St. Petersburg. As the novel progresses, Prince Andrey repeatedly discovers the emptiness of the activities to which he has devoted himself. Tolstoy's description of his death in 1812 is usually regarded as one of the most effective scenes in Russian literature. ¼Ò¼³Ã¥ÀÇ Ç㱸Àû Àι°µé Áß¿¡¼­, µ¶ÀÚµéÀÇ °ü½ÉÀºÀº Á¦ÀÏ ¸ÕÀú ¾Èµå·¹ÀÌ º¼ÄܽºÆ¼ °øÀÛ¿¡ ÃÊÁ¡ÀÌ ÁÖ¾îÁö´Âµ¥, ±×´Â ¸ðµç °ÍÀ» °¡Â¥À̸ç, õ¹ÚÇϰųª, ´Ü¼øÈ÷ ÁøºÎÇÑ °ÍÀ¸·Î °æ¸êÇØ ¿Â °Å¸¸ÇÑ »ç¶÷ÀÌ´Ù. »ó·ù »çȸÀÇ À§¼±À» ÀÎÁ¤Çϸ鼭, ±×´Â ¿µ±¤À» ¾ò±â À§ÇÏ¿© ±º´ë¿¡ µé¾î°¡¸ç, À̰ÍÀ» ±×´Â ÁøÁ¤À¸·Î ÀǹÌÀÖ´Â °ÍÀ¸·Î ¿©±ä´Ù. ¾Æ¿ì½ºÅ͸®Ã÷¿¡¼­ ½ÉÇÏ°Ô ºÎ»ó´çÇÏ°í ³ª¼­, ±×´Â ¿µ±¤°ú ³ªÆú·¹¿ËÀ» ¼º ÆäÅ×½ººÎ¸£Å©ÀÇ »ç±³¸ðÀÓµé ¸¸Å­À̳ª ½Ã½ÃÇÑ °ÍÀ¸·Î º¸°Ô µÈ´Ù. ¼Ò¼³ÀÌ ÁøÇàµÇ¸é¼­, ¾Èµå·¹ÀÌ °øÀÛÀº  ÀÚ½ÅÀÌ Çå½ÅÇÏ¿´´ø Ȱµ¿µé¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿© µÇÇ®ÀÌÇÏ¿© °øÇãÇÔÀ» ¹ß°ßÇÑ´Ù. 1812³â ±×ÀÌ Á×À½¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ ¹¦»ç´Â ÈçÈ÷ ·¯½Ã¾Æ ¹®Çп¡¼­ °¡Àå È¿°úÀûÀÎ Àå¸éµé ÁßÀÇ Çϳª·Î ¿©°ÜÁø´Ù. 
The novel's other hero, the bumbling and sincere Pierre Bezukhov, oscillates between belief in some philosophical system promising to resolve all questions and a relativism so total as to leave him in apathetic despair. He at last discovers the Tolstoyan truth that wisdom is to be found not in systems but in the ordinary processes of daily life, especially in his marriage to the novel's most memorable heroine, Natasha. When the book stops--it does not really end but just breaks off--Pierre seems to be forgetting this lesson in his enthusiasm for a new utopian plan. ¼Ò¼³ÀÇ ¶Ç ÇϳªÀÇ ÁÖÀΰøÀº, ½Ç¼ö¸¦ ¿¬¹ßÇÏ¸ç ¼º½ÇÇÑ ÇÇ¿¡¸£ º£ÁÖÄÚÇÁ·Î¼­, ¸ðµç Àǹ®µéÀ» ÇØ°áÇÒ °ÍÀ» ¾à¼ÓÇØ ÁÖ´Â ¾î¶² öÇÐÀû ü°è¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¹ÏÀ½°ú ±×¸¦ ¹«°¨°¢ÇÑ Àý¸ÁÀ¸·Î ¹Ð¾î ºÎÄ¥ ¸¸Å­ Àý´ëÀûÀÎ »ó´ë¼º »çÀÌ¿¡¼­ Èçµé¸®°í ÀÖ´Ù. ±×´Â Àû¾îµµ, ÁöÇý´Â ü°è¿¡¼­ ¹ß°ßµÇ´Â °ÍÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó ³ª³¯ÀÇ »îÀÇ Æò¹üÇÑ ÁøÇà°úÁ¤µé¿¡¼­ ¹ß°ßµÇ¾îÁöµµ·Ï µÇ¾î ÀÖ´Ù´Â, Å罺ÅäÀÌÀûÀÎ Áø¸®¸¦ ¹ß°ßÇϸç, Ưº°È÷ ¼Ò¼³¿¡¼­ °¡Àå ±â¾ï¿¡ ³²´Â ¿©ÁÖÀΰøÀÎ, ³ªÅ¸»þ¿Í ±×ÀÇ °áÈ¥¿¡¼­ ±×·¯ÇÏ´Ù. Ã¥ÀÌ ¸ØÃâ ¶§¿¡ - »ç½Ç ±×°ÍÀº ³¡³ª´Â °ÍÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó °©Àڱ⠱×Ä¥ »ÓÀÌ´Ù - ÇÇ¿¡¸£´Â »õ·Î¿î À¯ÅäÇǾÆÀû °èȹ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ±×ÀÇ ÈïºÐÀ¸·Î ÀÌ·± ±³ÈÆÀ» Àؾî¹ö¸®°í ÀÖ´Â °Íó·³ º¸ÀδÙ.
In accord with Tolstoy's idea that prosaic, everyday activities make a life good or bad, the book's truly wise characters are not its intellectuals but a simple, decent soldier, Natasha's brother Nikolay, and a generous pious woman, Andrey's sister Marya. Their marriage symbolizes the novel's central prosaic values. Èï¹Ì ¾ø°í, ÀÏ»óÀûÀΠȰµ¿µéÀÌ »îÀ» À¯ÀÍÇϰųª ¾ÇÇÏ°Ô ¸¸µç´Ù´Â Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ »ç»ó°ú °ü·ÃÇÏ¿©, Ã¥ ¼ÓÀÇ ÁøÁ¤ÇÑ ÁöÇý ÀÖ´Â Àι°µéÀº Áö½ÄÀεéÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó ´Ü¼øÇϸç Á¡ÀÝÀº º´»çÀÎ ³ªÅ¸»þÀÇ ÇüÁ¦ÀÎ, ´ÏÄݶóÀÌ, ±×¸®°í °ü´ëÇÏ¸ç ½Å¾Ó½ÉÀÌ ±íÀº ¿©ÀÚÀÎ, ¾Èµå·¹ÀÌÀÇ ´©ÀÌ ¸¶¸®¾ÆÀÌ´Ù. ±×µéÀÇ °áÈ¥Àº ¼Ò¼³ÀÇ Áß½ÉÀûÀÎ ÁøºÎÇÑ °¡Ä¡µéÀ» »ó¡ÇÑ´Ù.
The essays in War and Peace, which begin in the second half of the book, satirize all attempts to formulate general laws of history and reject the ill-considered assumptions supporting all historical narratives. In Tolstoy's view, history, like battle, is essentially the product of contingency, has no direction, and fits no pattern. The causes of historical events are infinitely varied and forever unknowable, and so historical writing, which claims to explain the past, necessarily falsifies it. The shape of historical narratives reflects not the actual course of events but the essentially literary criteria established by earlier historical narratives. ÀüÀï°ú ÆòÈ­¿¡ µé¾î ÀÖ´Â ¼öÇʵéÀº, Ã¥ÀÇ µÎ ¹øÂ° Á߹ݺο¡¼­ ½ÃÀÛÇϴµ¥, ¿ª»ç¿¡ °üÇÑ ÀÏ¹Ý ¹ýÄ¢µéÀ» ¼¼¿ì·Á ÇÏ´Â ¸ðµç ½ÃµµµéÀ» dzÀÚÇϸç, ¸ðµç ¿ª»çÀû ¼­¼úµéÀ» ÁöÁöÇÏ´Â ¹«ºÐº°ÇÑ ¾ïÃøµéÀ» °ÅºÎÇÑ´Ù. Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ °üÁ¡¿¡¼­, ¿ª»ç´Â, ÀüÀïó·³, ±Ùº»ÀûÀ¸·Î ¿ì¿¬¼ºÀÇ »ê¹°À̰í, ¾Æ¹«·± ¹æÇâµµ °¡Áö°í ÀÖÁö ¾ÊÀ¸¸ç, ¾Æ¹«·± Ʋ¿¡µµ µé¾î ¸ÂÁö ¾Ê´Â´Ù.¿ª»çÀû »ç°ÇµéÀÇ ¿øÀεéÀº ¹«ÇÑÈ÷ º¯ÇÏ¸ç ¿µ¿øÈ÷ ¾Ë ¼ö ¾ø´Ù, ±×·¡¼­ ¿ª»ç¿¡ °üÇÑ ¼­¼úÀº, °ú°Å¸¦ ¼³¸íÇÑ´Ù°í ÁÖÀåÇÏÁö¸¸, ÇÊ¿¬ÀûÀ¸·Î ±×°ÍÀ» ¿Ö°îÇÏ´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ¿ª»çÀû ±â¼úµéÀÇ ÇüÅ´ »ç°ÇµéÀÇ »ç½ÇÀû °úÁ¤ÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó ÀÌÀüÀÇ ¿ª»çÀû ¼­¼úµé¿¡ ÀÇÇØ¼­ È®¸³µÈ ±Ùº»ÀûÀ¸·Î ¹®ÇÐÀûÀÎ ±âÁصéÀ» ¹Ý¿µÇÑ´Ù.
According to Tolstoy's essays, historians also make a number of other closely connected errors. They presume that history is shaped by the plans and ideas of great men--whether generals or political leaders or intellectuals like themselves--and that its direction is determined at dramatic moments leading to major decisions. In fact, however, history is made by the sum total of an infinite number of small decisions taken by ordinary people, whose actions are too unremarkable to be documented. As Tolstoy explains, to presume that grand events make history is like concluding from a view of a distant region where only treetops are visible that the region contains nothing but trees. Therefore Tolstoy's novel gives its readers countless examples of small incidents that each exert a tiny influence--which is one reason that War and Peace is so long. Tolstoy's belief in the efficacy of the ordinary and the futility of system-building set him in opposition to the thinkers of his day. It remains one of the most controversial aspects of his philosophy. Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ ¼öÇʵ鿡 ÀÇÇϸé, ¿ª»ç°¡µéµµ ¿ª½Ã ¼ö¸¹Àº ´Ù¸¥ ±ä¹ÐÈ÷ ¿¬°áµÈ ¿À·ùµéÀ» ¹üÇÑ´Ù´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ±×µéÀº ¿ª»ç°¡ À§´ëÇÑ »ç¶÷µé -- À屺µéÀ̰ųª Á¤Ä¡ ÁöµµÀÚµéÀ̰ųª ¶Ç´Â ±×µé°ú °°Àº Áö½ÄÀεé -- ÀÇ °èȹµé°ú »ç»óµé·Î¼­ ¸ð¾çÀ» °¡Áö¸ç ±× ¹æÇâÀº ÁÖ¿ä °áÁ¤µé¿¡ À̸£´Â ±ØÀûÀÎ ¼ø°£µé¿¡¼­ °áÁ¤µÈ´Ù°í ÀüÁ¦ÇÑ´Ù. ±×·¯³ª »ç½Ç»ó ¿ª»ç´Â Æò¹üÇÑ »ç¶÷µé¿¡ ÀÇÇØ, ºñ·Ï ±×µéÀÇ ÇൿµéÀÌ ¹®¼­È­ µÇ±â¿¡´Â ³Ê¹«³ª Æò¹üÇÏÁö¸¸, ÃëÇØÁö´Â ¹«¼öÈ÷ ¸¹Àº ÀÛÀº °áÁ¤µéÀÇ ÃѰ迡 ÀÇÇÏ¿© ¸¸µé¾î Áø´Ù. Å罺ÅäÀ̰¡ ¼³¸íÇϵíÀÌ, °Å´ëÇÑ »ç°ÇµéÀÌ ¿ª»ç¸¦ ¸¸µç´Ù´Â °ÍÀº ¿ÀÁ÷ ³ª¹«ÀÇ ²À´ë±âµé ¸¸ÀÌ º¸ÀÌ´Â ¸Õ Áö¿ªÀÇ ½Ã°¢À¸·ÎºÎÅÍ ±× Áö¿ªÀÌ ¿À·ÎÁö ³ª¹«µé¸¸ Æ÷ÇÔÇÑ´Ù°í °á·ÐÀ» ³»¸®´Â °Í°ú °°´Ù. ±×·¯¹Ç·Î Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ ¼Ò¼³Àº ±× µ¶Àڵ鿡°Ô Á¦°¢±â Á¶±×¸¸ ¿µÇâÀ» Çà»çÇÏ´Â Á¶±×¸¸ »ç°ÇµéÀÇ ¹«¼öÇÑ ¿¹µéÀ» ÁØ´Ù -- ¹Ù·Î ±×°ÍÀÌ ÀüÀï°ú ÆòÈ­°¡ ³Ê¹« ±æ´Ù´Â ÇѰ¡Áö ÀÌÀ¯ÀÌ´Ù. Æò¹üÇÑ °ÍÀÇ È¿¿ë¼º°ú Á¦µµ ±¸ÃàÀÇ ¹«¿ë¼º¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ ½Å³äÀº ±×ÀÇ ½Ã´ëÀÇ »ç»ó°¡µé°ú ±×¸¦ ´ëÄ¡ÇÏ°Ô ¸¸µé¾ú´Ù. ±×°ÍÀº ±×ÀÇ Ã¶ÇÐÀÇ °¡Àå ³í¶õÀÌ µÇ´Â Ãø¸éµé ÁßÀÇ Çϳª·Î ³²¾Æ ÀÖ´Ù.
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4.2 Anna Karenina.

4.2 ¾È³ª Ä«·¹´Ï³ª.

In Anna Karenina (1875-77) Tolstoy applied these ideas to family life. The novel's first sentence, which indicates its concern with the domestic, is perhaps Tolstoy's most famous: "All happy families resemble each other; each unhappy family is unhappy in its own way." Anna Karenina interweaves the stories of three families, the Oblonskys, the Karenins, and the Levins. ¾È³ª Ä«·¹´Ï³ª(1875-77)¿¡¼­ Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ÀÌ¿Í °°Àº »ç»óµéÀ» °¡Á·ÀÇ »î¿¡ Àû¿ëÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¼Ò¼³ÀÇ Ã¹ ¹øÂ° ¹®ÀåÀº, °¡Á¤ÀûÀÎ °ü½ÉÀ» °¡¸®Å°´Â °ÍÀ¸·Î, ¾Æ¸¶µµ Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ °¡Àå À¯¸íÇÑ: "¸ðµç ÇູÇÑ °¡Á¤µéÀº ¼­·Î ´à¾Æ ÀÖ´Ù; Á¦°¢±â ºÒÇàÇÑ °¡Á¤Àº ±× ³ª¸§´ë·Î ºÒÇàÇÏ´Ù"ÀÏ °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ¾È³ª Ä«·¹´Ï³ª´Â ¼¼ °¡Á¤ - ¿Àºí·Ð½ºÅ°, Ä«·¹´Ñ ¹× ·¹ºó - ÀÇ À̾߱âµéÀ» ¿«¾î °£´Ù.
The novel begins at the Oblonskys, where the long-suffering wife Dolly has discovered the infidelity of her genial and sybaritic husband Stiva. In her kindness, care for her family, and concern for everyday life, Dolly stands as the novel's moral compass. By contrast, Stiva, though never wishing ill, wastes resources, neglects his family, and regards pleasure as the purpose of life. The figure of Stiva is perhaps designed to suggest that evil, no less than good, ultimately derives from the small moral choices human beings make moment by moment. ¼Ò¼³Àº ¿Àºí·Ð½ºÅ°ÀÇ °¡Á¤¿¡¼­ ½ÃÀ۵Ǵµ¥, ±×°÷¿¡¼± ÂüÀ»¼º ¸¹Àº µ¹¸®°¡ ±×³àÀÇ ´ÙÁ¤ÇÏ¸ç ¹æÅÁÇÑ ³²Æí ½ºÆ¼¹ÙÀÇ ºÎÁ¤À» ¹ß°ßÇÏ°Ô µÈ´Ù. ±×³àÀÇ Ä£ÀýÇÔ, ±×³àÀÇ °¡Á·¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¾ÖÁ¤ ±×¸®°í ÀÏ»ó »ýȰ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ °ü½É ¾È¿¡¼­, µ¹¸®´Â ¼Ò¼³ ¼ÓÀÇ µµ´öÀû ³ªÄ§¹ÝÀ¸·Î ¼­°Ô µÈ´Ù. ´ëÁ¶ÀûÀ¸·Î, ½ºÆ¼¹Ù´Â, ºñ·Ï °áÄÚ ¾ÇÀ» ¹Ù¶óÁø ¾ÊÁö¸¸, Àç»êÀ» ³¶ºñÇϰí, ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ °¡Á·À» µîÇѽÃÇϸç, ±×¸®°í Äè¶ôÀ» »îÀÇ ¸ñÀûÀ¸·Î ¿©±ä´Ù. ½ºÆ¼¹Ù°¡ »ó¡ÇÏ´Â °ÍÀº ¾Æ¸¶µµ ¾ÇÀº, ¼±°ú ¸¶Âù°¡Áö·Î, ±Ã±ØÀûÀ¸·Î Àΰ£À̶ó´Â Á¸ÀçµéÀÌ ¸Å ¼ø°£¸¶´Ù ³»¸®´Â Á¶±×¸¸ µµ´öÀû ¼±Åõé·ÎºÎÅÍ ºñ·ÔµÈ´Ù´Â °ÍÀ» ¾Ï½ÃÇϵµ·Ï ±¸»óµÈ °ÍÀÌ´Ù.
Stiva's sister Anna begins the novel as the faithful wife of the stiff, unromantic, but otherwise decent government minister Aleksey Karenin and the mother of a young boy, Seryozha. But Anna, who imagines herself the heroine of a romantic novel, allows herself to fall in love with an officer, Aleksey Vronsky. Schooling herself to see only the worst in her husband, she eventually leaves him and her son to live with Vronsky. Throughout the novel, Tolstoy indicates that the romantic idea of love, which most people identify with love itself, is entirely incompatible with the superior kind of love, the intimate love of good families. As the novel progresses, Anna, who suffers pangs of conscience for abandoning her husband and child, develops a habit of lying to herself until she reaches a state of near madness and total separation from reality. She at last commits suicide by throwing herself under a train. The realization that she may have been thinking about life incorrectly comes to her only when she is lying on the track, and it is too late to save herself. ½ºÆ¼¹ÙÀÇ ´©ÀÌÀÎ ¾È³ª´Â »»»»Çϰí, Çö½ÇÀûÀÌÁö¸¸, ´Ù¸¥ ¸é¿¡¼± Á¤ºÎ °¢·áÀÎ ¾Ë·º¼¼ÀÌ Ä«·¹´ÑÀÇ ¾Æ³»·Î ±×¸®°í ¾î¸° ¼Ò³â, ¼¼¸®¿ÀÀÚÀÇ ¾î¸Ó´Ï·Î ¼Ò¼³À» ½ÃÀÛÇÑ´Ù. ±×·¯³ª ¾È³ª´Â, ÀÚ½ÅÀ» ³¶¸¸Àû ¼Ò¼³ÀÇ ÁÖÀΰøÀ¸·Î »ó»óÇÏ¿©¼­, ½º½º·Î Àå±³ÀÎ ¾Ë·º¼¼ÀÌ ºê·Ð½ºÅ°¿Í »ç¶û¿¡ ºüÁöµµ·Ï ÇÑ´Ù. ±×³àÀÇ ³²Æí¿¡°Ô¼­ ¿ÀÁ÷ ÃÖ¾Ç ¸¸À» º¸µµ·Ï ÈÆ·ÃÇÏ°í¼­, ±×³à´Â °á±¹ ºê·Ð½ºÅ°¿Í »ì±â À§ÇØ ±×¿Í ±×³àÀÇ ¾ÆµéÀ» ¶°³­´Ù. ¼Ò¼³ Àüü¸¦ ÅëÇÏ¿©, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â »ç¶û¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ³¶¸¸Àû »ý°¢Àº, ´ëºÎºÐÀÇ »ç¶÷µéÀº À̰ÍÀ» »ç¶û ±× ÀÚüÀÎ °ÍÀ¸·Î µ¿ÀϽÃÇϴµ¥, ¿ì¿ùÇÑ Á¾·ùÀÇ »ç¶û, Áï, ÈǸ¢ÇÑ °¡Á¤µéÀÇ Æí¾ÈÇÑ »ç¶û°ú ÀüÀûÀ¸·Î ¾ç¸³ÇÒ ¼ö ¾øÀ½À» °¡¸®Å°°í ÀÖ´Ù. ¼Ò¼³ÀÌ ÁøÇàµÇ¸é¼­, ¾È³ª´Â, ±×³àÀÇ ³²Æí°ú ÀÚ½ÄÀ» ¹ö¸° µ¥ ´ëÇÑ ¾ç½ÉÀÇ °íÅëÀ» °ÞÀ¸¸ç, °ÅÀÇ ¹ÌÄ£ »óÅ¿¡ ±×¸®°í Çö½Ç°úÀÇ ¿ÏÀüÇÑ °Ý¸®¿¡ À̸¦ ¶§±îÁö ½º½º·Î¸¦ ¼ÓÀÌ´Â ½À°üÀ» ¹ßÀü½ÃŲ´Ù. ±×³à´Â ¸¶Ä§³» ±âÂ÷ ¹ØÀ¸·Î ¶Ù¾îµé¸é¼­ ÀÚ»ìÀ» ÇÏ°í ¸¸´Ù. ±×³à°¡ »î¿¡ ´ëÇØ Ʋ¸®°Ô »ý°¢Çϰí ÀÖ¾úÀ» ¼öµµ ÀÖ´Ù´Â ÀÚ°¢Àº ¿ÀÁ÷ ±×³à°¡ ö±æ À§¿¡ ´©¿ö ÀÖÀ» ¶§ ±×³à¿¡°Ô ´Ù°¡¿À°í, ±×¸®°í ±×°ÍÀº ½º½º·Î¸¦ ±¸Çϱ⿡´Â ³Ê¹« ´ÊÀº °ÍÀ̾ú´Ù. 
The third story concerns Dolly's sister Kitty, who first imagines she loves Vronsky but then recognizes that real love is the intimate feeling she has for her family's old friend, Konstantin Levin. Their story focuses on courtship, marriage, and the ordinary incidents of family life, which, in spite of many difficulties, shape real happiness and a meaningful existence. Throughout the novel, Levin is tormented by philosophical questions about the meaning of life in the face of death. Although these questions are never answered, they vanish when Levin begins to live correctly by devoting himself to his family and to daily work. Like his creator Tolstoy, Levin regards the systems of intellectuals as spurious and as incapable of embracing life's complexity. ¼¼ ¹øÂ°ÀÇ À̾߱â´Â µ¹¸®ÀÇ ´©ÀÌÀΠŰƼ¿Í °ü·ÃÇÑ °ÍÀ¸·Î, ±×³à´Â óÀ½¿¡ ÀÚ½ÅÀÌ ºê·Ð½ºÅ°¸¦ »ç¶ûÇÑ´Ù°í »ó»óÇÏÁö¸¸ ±×¶§ ÁøÁ¤ÇÑ »ç¶ûÀº ±×³àÀÇ °¡Á¤ÀÇ ¿À·£ Ä£±¸ÀÎ, ÄܽºÅºÆ¾ ·¹ºó¿¡ ´ëÇØ °¡Áø Æí¾ÈÇÑ ´À³¦À̾úÀ½À» ±ú´Ý´Â´Ù. ±×µéÀÇ À̾߱â´Â ±¸¾Ö, °áÈ¥, ±×¸®°í °¡Á¤ÀÇ »îÀÇ Æò¹üÇÑ »ç°Çµé¿¡ ÃÊÁ¡À» ¸ÂÃ߸ç, ±×µéÀº, ¸¹Àº ¾î·Á¿òµé¿¡µµ ºÒ±¸Çϰí, ÁøÁ¤ÇÑ Çູ°ú ÀÇ¹Ì ÀÖ´Â Á¸À縦 ´Ùµë¾î ³ª°£´Ù. ¼Ò¼³ Àüü¸¦ ÅëÇÏ¿©, ·¹ºóÀº Á×À½¿¡ Á÷¸éÇÏ´Â »îÀÇ Àǹ̿¡ ´ëÇÑ Ã¶ÇÐÀû Àǹ®µé¿¡ ÀÇÇØ¼­ °íÅë ¹Þ´Â´Ù. ºñ·Ï ÀÌ·± Àǹ®µéÀº °áÄÚ ´äÀ» ¾üÁö ¸øÇÏÁö¸¸, ±×°ÍµéÀº, ·¹ºóÀÌ ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ °¡Á¤°ú ÀÏ»óÀÇ ÀÏ¿¡ Àü³äÇϸ鼭 ¿Ã¹Ù¸£°Ô »ì±â ½ÃÀÛÇÒ ¶§, »ç¶óÁø´Ù. ±×¸¦ âÁ¶ÇÑ Å罺ÅäÀÌó·³, ·¹ºóÀº Áö½ÄÀεéÀÇ Ã¼°èµéÀ» À§¼±ÀÌ¸ç »îÀÇ º¹ÀâÇÔÀ» ²¸¾ÈÀ» ¼ö ¾ø´Ù°í ¿©±ä´Ù.
Both War and Peace and Anna Karenina advance the idea that ethics can never be a matter of timeless rules applied to particular situations. Rather, ethics depends on a sensitivity, developed over a lifetime, to particular people and specific situations. Tolstoy's preference for particularities over abstractions is often described as the hallmark of his thought. ÀüÀï°ú ÆòÈ­ ±×¸®°í ¾È³ª Ä«·¹´Ï³ª´Â °øÈ÷ À±¸®ÇÐÀº ƯÁ¤ÇÑ »óȲµé¿¡ Àû¿ëµÇ´Â ½Ã°£À» ÃÊ¿ùÇÑ ¿øÄ¢µéÀÇ ¹®Á¦°¡ µÉ ¼ö ¾ø´Ù´Â »ç»óÀ» Àü°³ÇÑ´Ù. ¿ÀÈ÷·Á, À±¸®ÇÐÀº °¨¼ö¼º¿¡ ÀÇÁ¸Çϸç, Æò»ýÀ» ÅëÇÏ¿©, ƯÁ¤ÇÑ »ç¶÷µé¿¡°Ô·Î ±×¸®°í ƯÁ¤ÇÑ »óȲµé·Î ¹ßÀüµÈ´Ù. Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ Ã߻󼺵鿡 ´ëÇÑ Æ¯¼ö¼ºÀÇ ¼±È£´Â Á¾Á¾ ±×ÀÇ »ç»óÀÇ Æ¯¼ºÀ¸·Î ¹¦»çµÈ´Ù.
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5 Conversion and religious beliefs.

5 °³Á¾°ú Á¾±³Àû ½Å³äµé

Upon completing Anna Karenina, Tolstoy fell into a profound state of existential despair, which he describes in his Ispoved (1884; My Confession). All activity seemed utterly pointless in the face of death, and Tolstoy, impressed by the faith of the common people, turned to religion. Drawn at first to the Russian Orthodox church into which he had been born, he rapidly decided that it, and all other Christian churches, were corrupt institutions that had thoroughly falsified true Christianity. Having discovered what he believed to be Christ's message and having overcome his paralyzing fear of death, Tolstoy devoted the rest of his life to developing and propagating his new faith. He was excommunicated from the Russian Orthodox church in 1901. ¾È³ª Ä«·¹´Ï³ª¸¦ ¿Ï¼ºÇÏÀÚ¸¶ÀÚ, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ±íÀº Á¸ÀçÀû Àý¸Á°¨¿¡ ºüÁö¸ç, ÀÌ¿¡ ´ëÇØ ±×´Â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ Ispoved (1884; ³ªÀÇ °í¹é)¿¡¼­ ¹¦»çÇϰí ÀÖ´Ù. Á×À½À» ¸ÂÀÌÇÒ ¶§¿¡ ¸ðµç Ȱµ¿Àº öÀúÈ÷ ÀÇ¹Ì ¾ø´Â °Íó·³ º¸¿´´Ù, ±×¸®°í Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â, º¸Åë »ç¶÷µéÀÇ ½Å¾Ó¿¡ °¨¸íÀ» ¹Þ°í¼­, Á¾±³¿¡ ±ÍÀÇÇÏ¿´´Ù. óÀ½¿£ ±×°¡ ž ¶§ºÎÅÍ °¡Á³´ø ·¯½Ã¾Æ Á¤±³¿¡ ¸ôµÎÇÏ¿´À¸³ª, ±×´Â ½Å¼ÓÈ÷, ±×°Í°ú ¸ðµç ´Ù¸¥ ±×¸®½ºµµ±³ ±³È¸µéÀÌ, ÁøÁ¤ÇÑ ±×¸®½ºµµ±³¸¦ ¼Ó¼ÓµéÀÌ ¿Ö°îÇÑ ºÎÆÐÇÑ ´ÜüµéÀ̶ó°í °á·ÐÀ» ³»·È´Ù. ±×°¡ ¹ÏÀº °ÍÀÌ ±×¸®½ºµµÀÇ ¸Þ½ÃÁöÀÓÀ» ¹ß°ßÇÏ°í¼­ ±×¸®°í Á×À½¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¹«±â·ÂÇÑ µÎ·Á¿òÀ» ±Øº¹ÇÑ µÚ¿¡, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ »îÀÇ ³ª¸ÓÁö¸¦ ±×ÀÇ »õ·Î¿î ½Å¾ÓÀ» ¹ßÀü½Ã۸ç ÀüÆÄÇϴµ¥ Çå½ÅÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×´Â 1901³â ·¯½Ã¾Æ Á¤±³È¸·ÎºÎÅÍ ÆÄ¹® ´çÇÏ¿´´Ù.
In the early 1880s he wrote three closely related works, Issledovaniye dogmaticheskogo bogosloviya (written 1880; An Examination of Dogmatic Theology), Soyedineniye i perevod chetyrokh yevangeliy (written 1881; Union and Translation of the Four Gospels), and V chyom moya vera? (written 1884; What I Believe); he later added Tsarstvo bozhiye vnutri vas (1893; The Kingdom of God Is Within You) and many other essays and tracts. In brief, Tolstoy rejected all the sacraments, all miracles, the Holy Trinity, the immortality of the soul, and many other tenets of traditional religion, all of which he regarded as obfuscations of the true Christian message contained, especially, in the Sermon on the Mount. He rejected the Old Testament and much of the New, which is why, having studied Greek, he composed his own "corrected" version of the Gospels. For Tolstoy, "the man Jesus," as he called him, was not the son of God but only a wise man who had arrived at a true account of life. Tolstoy's rejection of religious ritual contrasts markedly with his attitude in Anna Karenina, where religion is viewed as a matter not of dogma but of traditional forms of daily life. 1880³â´ë Ãʱ⿡ ±×´Â ¼¼ÆíÀÇ ±ä¹ÐÈ÷ ¿¬°üµÈ ÀÛǰµé, Issledovaniye dogmaticheskogo bogosloviya (1880³â¿¡ ÁýÇÊ; ±³¸®Àû ½ÅÇÐÀÇ ¿¬±¸), Soyedineniye i perevod chetyrokh yevangeliy (1881³â¿¡ ÁýÇÊ; 4 º¹À½¼­ÀÇ ÇÕÀϰú ÇØ¼®), ¹× V chyom moya vera? ( 1884³â¿¡ ÁýÇÊ; ³ª´Â ¹«¾ùÀ» ¹Ï´Â°¡)À» ÁýÇÊÇÏ¿´´Ù; ±×´Â ÈÄÀÏ Tsarstvo bozhiye vnutri vas (1893; Çϳª´ÔÀÇ ³ª¶ó´Â ³ÊÈñ ¾È¿¡ ÀÖ´À´Ï¶ó) ¹× ¸¹Àº ´Ù¸¥ ³í¹®µé ¹× ¼Ò ³í¹®µéÀ» ÁýÇÊÇÏ¿´´Ù. °£´ÜÈ÷ ¸»Çϸé, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ¸ðµç ¼º·Êµé, ¸ðµç ±âÀûµé, »ïÀ§ ÀÏü, ¿µÈ¥ ºÒ¸ê ¹× ¸¹Àº ´Ù¸¥ ÀüÅëÀû Á¾±³ÀÇ °­·ÉµéÀ» °ÅºÎÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, ±×´Â ±× ¸ðµç °ÍµéÀ», Ưº°È÷, »ê»ó ¼³±³¿¡ ´ã°ÜÀÖ´Â ±×¸®½ºµµÀÇ ÂüµÈ ¸Þ½ÃÁö¸¦ È帮°Ô ÇÏ´Â °ÍµéÀ̶ó°í ¿©°å´Ù. ±×´Â ±¸¾à¼º¼­ ¹× ¸¹Àº ºÎºÐÀÇ ½Å¾à¼º¼­¸¦ °ÅºÎÇÏ¿´´Âµ¥, ±×°ÍÀÌ ¹Ù·Î ±×°¡ ±×¸®½º¾î¸¦ ¿¬±¸ÇÑ µÚ¿¡ ÀÚ±â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ "±³Á¤µÈ" º¹À½¼­ ¹öÀüÀ» âÀÛÇÑ ÀÌÀ¯ÀÌ´Ù. Å罺ÅäÀÌ¿¡°Ô À־ ±×°¡ ÀÏÄ´ ¹Ù, "¿¹¼ö¶ó´Â »ç¶÷"Àº Çϳª´ÔÀÇ ¾ÆµéÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï¸ç ¿ÀÁ÷ »î¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Áø½ÇÇÑ ¼³¸í¿¡ µµ´ÞÇÑ Çö¸íÇÑ »ç¶÷À̾ú´Ù. Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ Á¾±³Àû ÀÇ·ÊÀÇ °ÅºÎ´Â ¾È³ª Ä«·¹´Ï³ª¿¡¼­ÀÇ ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ °æÇâ°ú µÎµå·¯Áö°Ô ´ëÁ¶µÇ´Âµ¥, ±×°÷¿¡¼­ Á¾±³´Â ±³¸®ÀÇ ¹®Á¦·Î¼­°¡ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó ÀÏ»óÀû »îÀÇ ÀüÅëÀûÀÎ Çüŵé·Î¼­ º¸¿©Áö°í ÀÖ´Ù.
Stated positively, the Christianity of Tolstoy's last decades stressed five tenets: be not angry, do not lust, do not take oaths, do not resist evil, and love your enemies. Nonresistance to evil, the doctrine that inspired Gandhi, meant not that evil must be accepted but only that it cannot be fought with evil means, especially violence. Thus Tolstoy became a pacifist. Because governments rely on the threat of violence to enforce their laws, Tolstoy also became a kind of anarchist. He enjoined his followers not only to refuse military service but also to abstain from voting or from having recourse to the courts. He therefore had to go through considerable inner conflict when it came time to make his will or to use royalties secured by copyright even for good works. In general, it may be said that Tolstoy was well aware that he did not succeed in living according to his teachings. ±àÁ¤ÀûÀ¸·Î ¸»ÇÏÀÚ¸é, Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ °ú°Å ¼ö½Ê³â °£ÀÇ ±×¸®½ºµµ±³´Â ´Ù¼¸ °¡Áö ½ÅÁ¶¸¦ °­Á¶ÇÏ¿´´Ù: È­¸¦ ³»Áö ¸»¶ó, Á¤¿åÀ» °®Áö ¸»¶ó, ¸Í¼¼¸¦ ÇÏÁö ¸»¶ó, ¾Ç¿¡ ÀúÇ×ÇÏÁö ¸»¶ó, ±×¸®°í ³ÊÀÇ ¿ø¼ö¸¦ »ç¶ûÇ϶ó. ¾Ç¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¹«ÀúÇ×Àº, °£µð¿¡°Ô ¿µ°¨ ÁØ ±³¸®·Î¼­, ¾ÇÀÌ ¹Ýµå½Ã ¼ö¿ëµÇ¾î¾ß ÇÑ´Ù´Â °ÍÀ» ÀǹÌÇÏÁö ¾ÊÀ» »Ó¸¸ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó ¾ÇÇÑ ¹æ¹ý, ƯÈ÷ Æø·ÂÀ¸·Î, ½Î¿ï ¼ö ¾ø´Ù´Â °ÍÀ» ÀǹÌÇß´Ù. ±×¸®ÇÏ¿© Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ÆòÈ­ÁÖÀÇÀÚ°¡ µÇ¾ú´Ù. Á¤ºÎ°¡ ±×µéÀÇ ¹ý·üÀ» ÁýÇàÇϱâ À§ÇÏ¿© Æø·ÂÀÇ À§Çù¿¡ ÀÇÁ¸Çϱ⠶§¹®¿¡, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ÀÏÁ¾ÀÇ ¹«Á¤ºÎÁÖÀÇÀÚ°¡ µÇ¾ú´Ù. ±×´Â ±×ÀÇ ÃßÁ¾Àڵ鿡°Ô º´¿ªÀ» °ÅºÎÇÒ »Ó¸¸ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó ÅõÇ¥³ª ¹ýÁ¤¿¡ È£¼ÒÇÔÀ» »ï°¡¶ó°í ±Ç°íÇß´Ù. ±×´Â ±×·¯¹Ç·Î ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ À¯¾ðÀ» ÀÛ¼ºÇϰųª ½ÉÁö¾î À¯ÀÍÇÑ »ç¾÷µé¿¡µµ ÀúÀ۱ǿ¡ ÀÇÇÏ¿© È®º¸µÈ ·Î¿­Æ¼µéÀ» »ç¿ëÇÒ ¶§¿¡ »ó´çÇÑ ³»ÀûÀÎ °¥µîÀ» °Þ¾î¾ß¸¸ Çß´Ù. ÀϹÝÀûÀ¸·Î, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ °¡¸£Ä§¿¡ µû¶ó¼­ »ç´Â °Í¿¡ ¼º°øÇÏÁö ¸øÇÏ¿´À½À» Àß ¾Ë°í ÀÖ¾ú´Ù°í ¸»Çصµ µÉ °ÍÀÌ´Ù.
Tolstoy based the prescription against oaths (including promises) on an idea adapted from his early work: the impossibility of knowing the future and therefore the danger of binding oneself in advance. The commandment against lust eventually led him to propose (in his afterword to Kreytserova sonata [1891; The Kreutzer Sonata]), a dark novella about a man who murders his wife) total abstinence as an ideal. His wife, already concerned about their strained relations, objected. In defending his most extreme ideas, Tolstoy compared Christianity to a lamp that is not stationary but is carried along by human beings; it lights up ever new moral realms and reveals ever higher ideals as mankind progresses spiritually. Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â (¾à¼ÓµéÀ» Æ÷ÇÔÇÏ¿©) ¸Í¼¼µé¿¡ ¹Ý´ëÇÏ´Â ¸í·ÉÀ» ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ Ãʱâ ÀÛǰÀ¸·ÎºÎÅÍ °¢»öÇÑ »ç»ó¿¡ Åä´ë¸¦ µÎ°í ÀÖ¾ú´Ù: ¹Ì·¡¸¦ ¾Æ´Â °ÍÀÇ ºÒ°¡´É¼º ±×·¯¹Ç·Î »çÀü¿¡ ½º½º·Î¸¦ ±¸¼ÓÇÏ´Â À§ÇèÀÌ ±×°ÍÀ̾ú´Ù. Á¤¿å¿¡ ¹Ý´ëÇÏ´Â °è¸íÀº °á±¹ ±×·Î ÇÏ¿©±Ý ¿ÏÀüÇÑ ±Ý¿åÀ» ÀÌ»óÀ¸·Î (ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ¾Æ³»¸¦ »ìÇØÇÏ´Â ³²ÀÚ¿¡ °üÇÑ ¾îµÎ¿î Á߯í¼Ò¼³ÀÎ ±×ÀÇ Kreytserova sonata [1891; Å©·ÎÀÌü ¼Ò³ªÅ¸]¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Èı⿡¼­ )Á¦¾ÈÇϵµ·Ï À̲ø¾ú´Ù. ±×ÀÇ ¾Æ³»´Â, ÀÌ¹Ì ±×µéÀÇ ¾ïÁö½º·± °ü°èµé¿¡ °ÆÁ¤Çϸ鼭, °ÅºÎÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×ÀÇ °¡Àå ±Ø´ÜÀûÀÎ »ç»óµéÀ» ¼öÈ£Çϱâ À§ÇÏ¿©, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ±×¸®½ºµµ±³¸¦ Á¤ÁöÇØÀÖ´Â °ÍÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó Àΰ£µéÀÌ Áö´Ï°Ô µÇ´Â µîºÒ°ú ºñÀ¯ÇÏ¿´´Ù; ±×°ÍÀº Àηù°¡ ¿µÀûÀ¸·Î Áøº¸ÇÔ¿¡ µû¶ó¼­ ¾ðÁ¦³ª »õ·Î¿î µµ´öÀû ¿µ¿ªµéÀ» ¹àÈ÷¸ç ¾ðÁ¦³ª ´õ ³ôÀº ÀÌ»óµéÀ» µå·¯³½´Ù.  
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6 Fiction after 1880.

6. 1880³â ÈÄÀÇ ¼Ò¼³¹®ÇÐ

Tolstoy's fiction after Anna Karenina may be divided into two groups. He wrote a number of moral tales for common people, including "Gde lyubov, tam i bog" (written 1885; "Where Love Is, God Is"), "Chem lyudi zhivy" (written 1882; "What People Live By"), and "Mnogo li cheloveku zemli nuzhno" (written 1885; "How Much Land Does a Man Need"), a story that the Irish novelist James Joyce rather extravagantly praised as "the greatest story that the literature of the world knows." For educated people, Tolstoy wrote fiction that was both realistic and highly didactic. Some of these works succeed brilliantly, especially Smert Ivana Ilicha (written 1886; The Death of Ivan Ilyich), a novella describing a man's gradual realization that he is dying and that his life has been wasted on trivialities. Otets Sergy (written 1898; Father Sergius), which may be taken as Tolstoy's self-critique, tells the story of a proud man who wants to become a saint but discovers that sainthood cannot be consciously sought. Regarded as a great holy man, Sergius comes to realize that his reputation is groundless; warned by a dream, he escapes incognito to seek out a simple and decent woman whom he had known as a child. At last he learns that not he but she is the saint, that sainthood cannot be achieved by imitating a model, and that true saints are ordinary people unaware of their own prosaic goodness. This story therefore seems to criticize the ideas Tolstoy espoused after his conversion from the perspective of his earlier great novels. ¾È³ª Ä«·¹´Ï³ª ÀÌÈÄÀÇ Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ ¼Ò¼³¹®ÇÐÀº µÎ°¡Áö ±×·ìÀ¸·Î ³ª´©¾îÁú ¼ö ÀÖÀ» °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ±×´Â º¸Åë »ç¶÷µéÀ» À§ÇØ ¸¹Àº µµ´öÀû À̾߱âµéÀ» ½è´Âµ¥,  "Gde lyubov, tam i bog" (1885³â ±â·Ï; "»ç¶ûÀÌ ÀÖ´Â °÷¿¡ Çϳª´ÔÀÌ ÀÖ´Ù"), "Chem lyudi zhivy" (1882³â ±â·Ï; "»ç¶÷Àº ¹«¾ùÀ¸·Î »ç´Â°¡"), ±×¸®°í ¾ÆÀÏ·£µåÀÇ ¼Ò¼³°¡ Á¦ÀÓ½º Á¶À̽º°¡ "¼¼°èÀÇ ¹®ÇÐÀÌ ¾Æ´Â ÇÑ °¡Àå ÈǸ¢ÇÑ À̾߱â"¶ó°í ´Ù¼Ò Áö³ªÄ¡°Ô ĪÂùÇÏ¿´´ø,  "Mnogo li cheloveku zemli nuzhno" (1885³â ±â·Ï; "»ç¶÷Àº ¾ó¸¶³ª ¸¹Àº ÅäÁö°¡ ÇÊ¿äÇѰ¡") µîÀÌ´Ù. ±³À°¹ÞÀº »ç¶÷µéÀ» À§ÇÏ¿©, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â Çö½ÇÁÖÀÇÀûÀÏ »Ó¸¸ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó ¸Å¿ì ±³ÈÆÀûÀÎ ¼Ò¼³À» ½è´Ù. À̵é ÀÛǰµé Áß ÀϺδ ¸ÚÁö°Ô ¼º°øÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, ƯÈ÷ Smert Ivana Ilicha (1886³â ±â·Ï; ÀÌ¹Ý Àϸ®Ä¡ÀÇ Á×À½)´Â ÀÚ½ÅÀÌ Á׾°í ÀÖÀ¸¸ç ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ »îÀÌ »ç¼ÒÇÑ °Íµé¿¡ ³¶ºñµÇ¾úÀ½À» Á¡Â÷ ±ú´Ý´Â ¾î¶² »ç¶÷À» ¹¦»çÇÏ´Â ÁßÆí ¼Ò¼³ÀÌ´Ù. Otets Sergy (1898¿¡ ÀÛ¼º; ½ÅºÎ ¼¼¸£Áö¿À½º)´Â, Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ ÀÚ¾Æ ºñÆÇÀ¸·Î ¿©°ÜÁú ¼ö ÀÖ´Â °ÍÀ¸·Î, ¼ºÀÚ°¡ µÇ±â¸¦ ¿øÇÏÁö¸¸ ¼ºÀÚ´Â ÀǽÄÀûÀ¸·Î Ãß±¸ÇÒ ¼ö ¾ø´Ù´Â °ÍÀ» ¹ß°ßÇÏ´Â ¿À¸¸ÇÑ »ç¶÷ÀÇ À̾߱⸦ ¸»ÇØ ÁØ´Ù. °Å´ëÇÑ ¼ºÀÎÀ¸·Î ¿©°ÜÁöÁö¸¸, ¼¼¸£Áö¿À½º´Â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ¸í¼ºÀÌ ±Ù°Å ¾øÀ½À» ±ú´Ý°Ô µÈ´Ù; ²ÞÀ¸·Î °æ°í¸¦ ¹Þ°í¼­, ±×°¡ ¾î¸± ¶§ºÎÅÍ ¾Ë¾Æ ¿Ô´ø ¼Ò¹ÚÇÏ¸ç ±âǰ ÀÖ´Â ¿©ÀÚ¸¦ ã±â À§ÇØ ¸ô·¡ Å»ÃâÇÑ´Ù. ¸¶Ä§³» ±×´Â ±×°¡ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó ±×³à°¡ ¼ºÀÚÀ̸ç, ÂüµÈ ¼ºÀÚ´Â ÀÚ±â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ÀÏ»óÀûÀÎ ¼±ÇÔÀ» ÀνÄÇÏÁö ¸øÇÏ´Â º¸Åë »ç¶÷µéÀÓÀ» ±ú´Ý°Ô µÈ´Ù. ÀÌ À̾߱â´Â ±×·¯¹Ç·Î Å罺ÅäÀ̰¡ ±×ÀÇ ÃʱâÀÇ À§´ëÇÑ ¼Ò¼³µéÀÇ ½Ã°¢À¸·ÎºÎÅÍ ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ °³Á¾ ÈÄ¿¡ ¿ËÈ£ÇÏ´ø »ç»óµéÀ» ºñÆÇÇÏ´Â °Íó·³ º¸ÀδÙ.
In 1899 Tolstoy published his third long novel, Voskreseniye (Resurrection); he used the royalties to pay for the transportation of a persecuted religious sect, the Dukhobors, to Canada. The novel's hero, the idle aristocrat Dmitry Nekhlyudov, finds himself on a jury where he recognizes the defendant, the prostitute Katyusha Maslova, as a woman whom he once had seduced, thus precipitating her life of crime. After she is condemned to imprisonment in Siberia, he decides to follow her and, if she will agree, to marry her. In the novel's most remarkable exchange, she reproaches him for his hypocrisy: once you got your pleasure from me, and now you want to get your salvation from me, she tells him. She refuses to marry him, but, as the novel ends, Nekhlyudov achieves spiritual awakening when he at last understands Tolstoyan truths, especially the futility of judging others. The novel's most celebrated sections satirize the church and the justice system, but the work is generally regarded as markedly inferior to War and Peace and Anna Karenina. 1899³â Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ±×ÀÇ ¼¼ ¹øÂ°·Î ±ä ¼Ò¼³ÀÎ, Voskreseniye (ºÎȰ)À» ÃâÆÇÇÏ¿´´Ù; ±×´Â ·Î¿­Æ¼¸¦ ¹ÚÇØ ¹Þ´ø Á¾±³Àû ºÐÆÄÀÎ, µÎÈ£º¸¸£ÀÇ Ä³³ª´Ù·ÎÀÇ ÀÌÁÖ¸¦ ÁöºÒÇϱâ À§ÇØ »ç¿ëÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¼Ò¼³ÀÇ ÁÖÀΰø,  ³ªÅÂÇÑ ±ÍÁ·ÀÎ µå¹ÌÆ®¸® ³×Ŭ·çµµÇÁ·Î´Â, ¹è½É¿øÀ¸·Î ³ª°¬´Ù°¡ ÇÇ°í¸¦ ¾Ë¾Æº¸´Âµ¥, â³àÀÎ Ä«Ãß»ç ¸¶½½·Î¹Ù¸¦ ÇÑ ¿©¼ºÀ¸·Î¼­ ±×°¡ °ú°Å¿¡ À¯È¤ÇÑ ÀûÀÌ ÀÖ¾úÀ¸¸ç, ±×¸®ÇÏ¿© ±×³à¸¦ ¹üÁËÀû »îÀ¸·Î ³»¸ó °ÍÀ̾ú´Ù. ±×³à°¡ ½Ãº£¸®¾Æ À¯ÇüÀ» ¼±°í ¹ÞÀº ÈÄ¿¡, ±×´Â ±×³à¸¦ µû¶ó°¡±â·Î ±×¸®°í, ¸¸ÀÏ ±×³à°¡ µ¿ÀÇÇÑ´Ù¸é, ±×³à¿Í °áÈ¥Çϱâ·Î °á½ÉÇÑ´Ù. ¼Ò¼³ÀÇ °¡Àå ÁÖ¸ñÇÒ ¸¸ÇÑ ´ëÈ­¿¡¼­, ±×³à´Â ±×ÀÇ À§¼±¿¡ ´ëÇØ ºñ³­ÇÑ´Ù: °ú°Å¿¡ ´ç½ÅÀº ³ª·ÎºÎÅÍ Äè¶ôÀ» ã¾ÒÀ¸¸ç, ÀÌÁ¦ ´ç½ÅÀº ³ª·ÎºÎÅÍ ±¸¿øÀ» ¾òÀ¸·Á Çϴ±º¿ä, ±×³à´Â ±×¿¡°Ô ¸»ÇÑ´Ù. ±×³à´Â ±×¿Í °áÈ¥Çϱ⸦ °ÅºÎÇÑ´Ù, ±×·¯³ª, ¼Ò¼³ÀÌ ³¡³ª°¡¸é¼­, ³×Ŭ·çµµÇÁ´Â, ¸¶Ä§³» ±×°¡ Å罺ÅäÀÌÀûÀÎ Áø¸®µéÀ», ƯÈ÷ ´Ù¸¥ »ç¶÷µéÀ» ÆÇ´ÜÇÔ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¾î¸®¼®À½À», ÀÌÇØÇϸ鼭 ¿µÀûÀÎ °¢¼ºÀ» ¼ºÃëÇÑ´Ù. ¼Ò¼³ÀÇ °¡Àå À¯¸íÇÑ ÀåµéÀÌ ±³È¸¿Í ¹ý·ü Á¦µµ¸¦ dzÀÚÇϰí ÀÖÀ¸³ª, ÀÌ ÀÛǰÀº ÀϹÝÀûÀ¸·Î ÀüÀï°ú ÆòÈ­ ±×¸®°í ¾È³ª Ä«·¹´Ï³ª º¸´Ù ÇöÀúÈ÷ µÚ¶³¾îÁö´Â °ÍÀ¸·Î ¿©°ÜÁø´Ù.  
Tolstoy's conversion led him to write a treatise and several essays on art. Sometimes he expressed in more extreme form ideas he had always held (such as his dislike for imitation of fashionable schools), but at other times he endorsed ideas that were incompatible with his own earlier novels, which he rejected. In Chto takoye iskusstvo? (1898; What Is Art?) he argued that true art requires a sensitive appreciation of a particular experience, a highly specific feeling that is communicated to the reader not by propositions but by "infection." In Tolstoy's view, most celebrated works of high art derive from no real experience but rather from clever imitation of existing art. They are therefore "counterfeit" works that are not really art at all. Tolstoy further divides true art into good and bad, depending on the moral sensibility with which a given work infects its audience. Condemning most acknowledged masterpieces, including Shakespeare's plays as well as his own great novels, as either counterfeit or bad, Tolstoy singled out for praise the biblical story of Joseph and, among Russian works, Dostoyevsky's The House of the Dead and some stories by his young friend Anton Chekhov. He was cool to Chekhov's drama, however, and, in a celebrated witticism, once told Chekhov that his plays were even worse than Shakespeare's. Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ °³Á¾Àº ±×¿¡°Ô ¿¹¼ú¿¡ °üÇÑ ÇÑ ±ÇÀÇ Ã¥°ú ¿©·¯ ÆíÀÇ ³í¹®µéÀ» ¾²µµ·Ï ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¶§¶§·Î ±×´Â ´õ¿í ±Ø´ÜÀûÀÎ ÇüÅ·Π±×°¡ ¾ðÁ¦³ª ÁÖÀåÇÏ´ø »ç»óµéÀ» Ç¥ÇöÇÏ¿´Áö¸¸, ¶ÇÇÑ ¶§¶§·Î ±×´Â ÀÚ±â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ Ãʱ⠼Ҽ³µé°ú ¾ç¸³ÇÏÁö ¾Ê´Â »ç»óµéÀ» ÁöÁöÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, ÃʱâÀÇ °ÍµéÀ» °ÅºÎÇÏ¿´´Ù.  Chto takoye iskusstvo? (1898; ¿¹¼úÀº ¹«¾ùÀΰ¡?)¿¡¼­ ±×´Â ÂüµÈ ¿¹¼úÀº ƯÁ¤ÇÑ °æÇè¿¡, Áï ¸íÁ¦µé¿¡ ÀÇÇØ¼­°¡ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó "Àü¿°"¿¡ ÀÇÇØ¼­ µ¶Àڵ鿡°Ô Àü´ÞµÇ´Â ¸Å¿ì ±¸Ã¼ÀûÀÎ ´À³¦¿¡, ´ëÇÑ ¼¶¼¼ÇÑ ÀÌÇØ¸¦ ¿ä±¸ÇÑ´Ù°í ÁÖÀåÇÏ¿´´Ù. Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ ½Ã°¢¿¡¼­, ³ôÀº ¿¹¼ú¼ºÀ» °¡Áø °¡Àå À¯¸íÇÑ ÀÛǰµéÀº ½ÇÁ¦Àû °æÇè¿¡¼­°¡ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó ¿ÀÈ÷·Á ±âÁ¸ ¿¹¼úÀÇ ¿µ¸®ÇÑ ¸ð¹æÀ¸·ÎºÎÅÍ ºñ·ÔµÈ´Ù. ±×°ÍµéÀº ±×·¯¹Ç·Î »ç½Ç»ó ÀüÇô ¿¹¼úÀÌ ¾Æ´Ñ "À§Á¶µÈ" ÀÛǰµéÀÌ´Ù. Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ´õ¿íÀÌ ÂüµÈ ¿¹¼úÀ» ¼±ÇÑ °Í°ú ¾ÇÇÑ °ÍÀ¸·Î ³ª´©¸ç, ÀÌ´Â ÁÖ¾îÁø ÀÛǰµéÀÌ Ã»ÁßÀ» ¹°µéÀÌ´Â µµ´öÀû °¨°¢·Â¿¡ ´Þ·ÁÀÖ´Ù. ´ëºÎºÐÀÇ ÀÎÁ¤µÈ ´ëÀÛµéÀ», ½¦ÀͽºÇǾîÀÇ Èñ°îµé »Ó¸¸ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó ÀÚ±â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ À§´ëÇÑ ¼Ò¼³µéÀ» Æ÷ÇÔÇÏ¿©, ¸ðÁ¶À̰ųª ¾ÇÇÏ´Ù°í ºñ³­Çϸ鼭, Å罺ÅäÀ̴ Ī¼ÛÀÇ ¸ñÀûÀ¸·Î ¼º¼­ÀÇ ¿ä¼Á À̾߱⠱׸®°í, ·¯½Ã¾ÆÀÎÀÇ ÀÛǰµé Áß¿¡¼­, µµ½ºÅ俹ÇÁ½ºÅ°ÀÇ [Á×Àº ÀÚÀÇ Áý] ±×¸®°í ±×ÀÇ ÀþÀº Ä£±¸ÀÎ ¾ÈÅæ üȣÇÁÀÇ ÀϺΠÀ̾߱âµéÀ» ¼±º°ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×·¯³ª ±×´Â üȣÇÁÀÇ µå¶ó¸¶¿¡´Â ³Ã´ãÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, ¾î´À À¯¸íÇÑ Àç´ã¿¡¼­ ÇѹøÀº üȣÇÁ¿¡°Ô ±×ÀÇ Èñ°îÀÌ ½¦ÀͽºÇǾîÀÇ °Íµé º¸´Ù ÈξÀ Á¶ÀâÇÏ´Ù°í ¸»Çß´Ù.
Tolstoy's late works also include a satiric drama, Zhivoy trup (written 1900; The Living Corpse), and a harrowing play about peasant life, Vlast tmy (written 1886; The Power of Darkness). After his death, a number of unpublished works came to light, most notably the novella Khadji-Murat (1904; Hadji-Murad), a brilliant narrative about the Caucasus reminiscent of Tolstoy's earliest fiction. Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ ¸¸³âÀÇ ÀÛǰµé¿¡´Â ¶ÇÇÑ Ç³ÀÚ±Ø Zhivoy trup (1900³â ÀÛ; »ì¾ÆÀÖ´Â ½Ãü), ±×¸®°í ³óºÎÀÇ »î¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ºñÂüÇÑ Èñ°î,  Vlast tmy (1886³â ÀÛ; ¾îµÒÀÇ Èû)À» Æ÷ÇÔÇÑ´Ù. ±×ÀÇ »çÈÄ¿¡, ¼ö¸¹Àº ÃâÆÇµÇÁö ¾Ê¾Ò´ø ÀÛǰµéÀÌ ºûÀ» º¸°Ô µÇ¾úÀ¸¸ç, °¡Àå ÁÖ¸ñ¹Þ´Â °ÍÀº ÁßÆí ¼Ò¼³ Khadji-Murat (1904; ÇÏÁö ¹«¶óÆ®)·Î¼­, Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ Ãʱ⠼Ҽ³À» ¿¬»óÄÉ ÇÏ´Â ÄÚÄ«¼­½º¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÈǸ¢ÇÑ ¼­¼úÀÌ´Ù.
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7 Last years.

7. ¸»±âÀÇ »î

With the notable exception of his daughter Aleksandra, whom he made his heir, Tolstoy's family remained aloof from or hostile to his teachings. His wife especially resented the constant presence of disciples, led by the dogmatic V.G. Chertkov, at Yasnaya Polyana. Their once happy life had turned into one of the most famous bad marriages in literary history. The story of his dogmatism and her penchant for scenes has excited numerous biographers to take one side or the other. Because both kept diaries, and indeed exchanged and commented on each other's diaries, their quarrels are almost too well documented. ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ »ó¼ÓÀÚ·Î ¸¸µç ±×ÀÇ µþ ¾Ë·º»êµå¶ó¸¦ ÇöÀúÇÑ ¿¹¿Ü·Î Çϰí, Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ °¡Á·Àº ±×ÀÇ °¡¸£Ä§µé¿¡¼­ ¸Ö¸® Àְųª Àû´ëÀûÀ̾ú´Ù. ±×ÀÇ ¾Æ³»´Â µ¶¼±ÀûÀÎ V.G. ChertkovÀÇ µÚ¸¦ µû¶ó¼­ ¾ß½º³ª¾ß Æú¸®¾ß³ª¿¡ ²öÀÓ ¾øÀÌ ³ªÅ¸³ª´Â Á¦Àڵ鿡°Ô È­¸¦ ³»¾ú´Ù. ±×µéÀÇ °ú°Å ÇູÇß´ø »îÀº ¹®ÇÐ ¿ª»ç»ó °¡Àå À¯¸íÇÑ ÁÁÁö ¾ÊÀº °áÈ¥µé ÁßÀÇ Çϳª·Î º¯Çعö·È´Ù. ±×ÀÇ µ¶´Ü·Ð°ú ±×³àÀÇ ¿¬±Ø¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Æí¾Ö´Â ¼ö¸¹Àº Àü±â ÀÛ°¡µé¿¡°Ô ÀÌÆí¿¡ ¶Ç´Â ÀúÆí¿¡ µéµµ·Ï ÀڱؽÃÄ×´Ù. µÎ »ç¶÷ ´Ù Àϱ⸦ Áö³æÀ¸¸ç, »ç½ÇÀûÀ¸·Î °¢ÀÚÀÇ ÀϱâµéÀ» ±³È¯ÇÏ°í ¾ð±ÞÇÏ¿´±â ¶§¹®¿¡, ±×µéÀÇ ´ÙÅùÀº °ÅÀÇ ³Ê¹«³ª Àß ¹®¼­È­ µÇ¾î ÀÖ´Ù.
Tormented by his domestic situation and by the contradiction between his life and his principles, Tolstoy at last escaped incognito from Yasnaya Polyana, accompanied by Aleksandra and his doctor. In spite of his stealth and desire for privacy, the international press was soon able to report on his movements. Having contracted pneumonia, he died of heart failure at the railroad station of Astapovo (Ryazan province) on Nov. 7 (Nov. 20, New Style), 1910. ±×ÀÇ °¡Á¤Àû »óȲ¿¡ ±×¸®°í ±×ÀÇ »î°ú ±×ÀÇ ¿ø¸®µé »çÀÌÀÇ °¥µî¿¡ °íÅë ¹ÞÀ¸¸é¼­, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ¸¶Ä§³» ¸ô·¡ ¾ß½º³ª¾ß Æú¸®¾ß³ª·ÎºÎÅÍ Å»ÃâÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, ¾Ë·º»êµå¶ó¿Í ±×ÀÇ ÁÖÄ¡ÀǸ¦ µ¿¹ÝÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×ÀÇ ÀáÇà°ú ÀºµÐ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ °¥¸Á¿¡µµ ºÒ±¸Çϰí, ±¹Á¦ ¾ð·ÐµéÀº °ð ±×ÀÇ µ¿Çâµé¿¡ ´ëÇØ º¸µµÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. Æó·Å¿¡ °É¸° ÈÄ, 1910³â 11¿ù 7ÀÏ(½Å·Â 11¿ù 20ÀÏ) ±×´Â ¾Æ½ºÅ¸Æ÷º¸ (¸®¾ÆÀÜ Áö¿ª)ÀÇ ±âÂ÷¿ª¿¡¼­ ½ÉÀ帶ºñ·Î Á×¾ú´Ù.
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8 Assessment.

8. Æò°¡

In contrast to other psychological writers, such as Dostoyevsky, who specialized in unconscious processes, Tolstoy described conscious mental life with unparalleled mastery. His name has become synonymous with an appreciation of contingency and of the value of everyday activity. Oscillating between skepticism and dogmatism, Tolstoy explored the most diverse approaches to human experience. Above all, his greatest works, War and Peace and Anna Karenina, endure as the summit of realist fiction. (G.S.M.) ¹«ÀǽÄÀÇ ÀÛ¿ëµéÀ» Àü¹®À¸·Î ÇÏ´Â µµ½ºÅ俹ÇÁ½ºÅ°¿Í °°Àº ´Ù¸¥ ½É¸® ÀÛ°¡µé°ú´Â ´ëÁ¶ÀûÀ¸·Î, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ÀǽÄÀûÀÎ Á¤½ÅÀû »îÀ» ´©±¸µµ ÇÊÀûÇÒ ¼ö ¾ø´Â ´É¼÷ÇÔÀ¸·Î ¹¦»çÇß´Ù. ±×ÀÇ À̸§Àº ¿ì¿¬¼º ¹× ÀÏ»óÀÇ È°µ¿ °¡Ä¡¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÀÌÇØ¿Í µ¿ÀǾ µÇ¾ú´Ù. ȸÀÇÁÖÀÇ¿Í ½ÅÁ¶ÁÖÀǸ¦ ¿À°¡¸é¼­, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â Àΰ£ÀÇ °æÇè¿¡ ´ëÇÑ °¡Àå ´Ù¾çÇÑ ½ÃµµµéÀ» ޱ¸Çß´Ù. ¹«¾ùº¸´Ùµµ, ±×ÀÇ °¡Àå À§´ëÇÑ ÀÛǰµéÀÎ, ÀüÀï°ú ÆòÈ­ ±×¸®°í ¾È³ª Ä«·¹´Ï³ª´Â, Çö½ÇÁÖÀÇ ¼Ò¼³¹®ÇÐÀÇ ÀýÁ¤À¸·Î ¿À·¡ ³²À» °ÍÀÌ´Ù. 
G.S.M. Gary Saul Morson. Frances Hooper Professor of the Arts and Humanities; Professor of Slavic Languages, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois. Author of Hidden in Plain View: Narrative and Creative Potentials in "War and Peace" and others. ¡¡
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9 Major Works

MAJOR WORKS

NOVELS AND NOVELLAS: Detstvo, Otrochestvo, and Yunost (respectively, 1852, 1854, and 1857; Childhood, Boyhood, Youth, 1886); Kazaki (1863; The Cossacks: A Tale of the Caucasus in 1852, 1878); Voyna i mir (1865-69; War and Peace, 1886); Anna Karenina (1875-77; Eng. trans., 1886); Smert Ivana Ilicha (1886; The Death of Ivan Ilyitch, in Ivan Ilyitch, and Other Stories, 1887); Kreytserova sonata (1891; The Kreutzer Sonata, 1890); Voskreseniye (1899; Resurrection, 1899); Khadzhi-Murat (1912; Hadji Murad, 1912); Otets Sergy (1912; Father Sergius, in Father Sergius, and Other Stories, 1912).

STORIES: "Rubka lesa" (1855; "The Wood-Cutting Expedition," in The Invaders, and Other Stories, 1887, better known as "The Woodfelling"); "Chem lyudi zhivy" (1882; "What People Live By," 1886); "Mnogo li cheloveku zemli nuzhno" (1885; "Does a Man Need Much Land," in Ivan Ilyitch and Other Stories, 1887, better known as "How Much Land Does a Man Need?"); "Dva starika" (1886; "The Two Pilgrims," 1887, better known as "Two Old Men"); "Kholstomer" (1886; "Kholstomir: A Story of a Horse," in The Invaders . . . , 1887); "Dyavol" (1911; "The Devil," 1926).

PLAYS: Zhivoi Trup (1911; The Living Corpse, 1911, also known as The Man Who Was Dead); Vlast Tmy (1912; The Dominion of Darkness, 1890, better known as The Power of Darkness).

PHILOSOPHICAL AND SOCIAL WRITINGS: Tsarstvo bozhiye vnutri vas (first publication in French, 1893; The Kingdom of God Is Within You, 1893); Ispoved (1884; My Confession, 1887); V chyom moya vera? (1884; What I Believe, 1886); Issledovaniye dogmaticheskogo bogosloviya (1891; Critique of Dogmatic Theology, in My Confession; Critique . . . , 1904); Chto takoye iskusstvo? (1898; What Is Art?, 1898); Tak chto zhe nam delat? (1906; What To Do?, 1887, also known as What Shall We Do Then? or What Then Must We Do?).

EDITIONS IN RUSSIAN AND IN ENGLISH TRANSLATION: The definitive edition in Russian is the "Jubilee" collection: Polnoe sobranie sochenenii, ed. by V.G. CHERTKOV, 90 vol. (1928-58). Comprehensive, though incomplete, collections of his works in English include The Works of Leo Tolstóy trans. by LOUISE MAUDE and AYLMER MAUDE, 21 vol. (1928-37), known as the "Tolstóy Centenary Edition"; and The Complete Works of Count Tolstoy, trans. by LEO WIENER, 24 vol. (1904-05, reprinted 1968).

There are numerous translations of Tolstoy's major works. War and Peace, trans. by ANN DUNNIGAN (1968, reissued 1993), is the superior version; also good is the translation by CONSTANCE GARNETT, 3 vol. (1904), and available in many later printings. The widely available Norton critical edition, War and Peace: The Maude Translation: Backgrounds and Sources: Essays in Criticism, ed. by GEORGE GIBIAN (1966), succeeds less well in capturing tone, in addition to changing Tolstoy's division of the book into sections and adding plot summaries to each chapter. Anna Karenina, ed. and rev. by LEONARD J. KENT and NINA BERBEROVA (1965), a revision of the Garnett translation, is the best version; it is followed by the Norton critical edition, Anna Karenina: The Maude Translation: Backgrounds and Sources: Essays in Criticism, ed. by GEORGE GIBIAN (1970).

As a general rule, where translations by Dunnigan or Garnett are not available, translations by the Maudes are to be preferred. The Maude versions of many of Tolstoy's works have been included in Oxford University Press's series The World's Classics; especially worth consulting are their translations in this series titled Twenty-Three Tales (1906, reprinted 1975), their well-known edition of Tolstoy's short, didactic stories; What Is Art? and Essays on Art (1930, reissued 1975); Childhood, Boyhood, and Youth (1930, reissued 1969); and A Confession, The Gospel in Brief, and What I Believe (1940, reissued 1974). For Tolstoy's short stories, a good choice is Short Stories, compiled by ERNEST J. SIMMONS (1964), the Modern Library edition which, in addition to several Maude translations, includes George L. Kline's version of Tolstoy's first experiment in fiction, "A History of Yesterday." Modern Library has also reproduced Maude translations of his Short Novels (1965); and Selected Essays (1964). Tolstoy's The Forged Coupon (1985) is the best version of this posthumously published story.

Tolstoy's plays, which are often replete with peasant dialect and many of which were left unfinished, have until recently resisted good translation. Two early collections are Plays, trans. by LOUISE MAUDE and AYLMER MAUDE (1914, reissued 1950); and The Dramatic Works of Lyof N. Tolstoï, trans. by NATHAN HASKELL DOLE (1923). A superior edition is Tolstoy: Plays (1994- ), trans. by MARVIN KANTOR and TANYA TULCHINSKY.

An excellent selection of Tolstoy's correspondence is Tolstoy's Letters, ed. and trans. from Russian by R.F. CHRISTIAN, 2 vol. (1978). Selections from his diaries (which run to 13 volumes in the Jubilee edition) are collected in Tolstoy's Diaries, ed. and trans. from Russian by R.F. CHRISTIAN, 2 vol. (1985). The intriguing record of Tolstoy's last year is Last Diaries, ed. by LEON STILMAN (1960, reprinted 1979). Some other versions are marred by inaccuracy or the suppression of passages for the sake of propriety: The Journal of Leo Tolstoi, trans. by ROSE STRUNSKY (1917, reissued 1993), covering the years 1895-1899; The Diaries of Leo Tolstoy, 3 vol., trans. by C.J. HOGARTH and A. SIRNIS (1917); and The Private Diary of Leo Tolstóy, 1853-1857, trans. by LOUISE MAUDE and AYLMER MAUDE (1927, reprinted 1972).

10 Bibliography

10.1 Biographies and recollections of Tolstoy.

The best portrait of Tolstoy the person is MAXIM GORKY, Reminiscences of Leo Nicolaevich Tolstoy (1920, reprinted 1977; originally published in Russian, 1919). There are several biographies of Tolstoy. AYLMER MAUDE, The Life of Tolstoy, 2 vol. (1908-10, reissued 2 vol. in 1, 1987), is a highly detailed account, written by a friend sympathetic to Tolstoy's teachings. ERNEST J. SIMMONS, Leo Tolstoy (1946, reissued in 2 vol., 1960), is useful for its generous selection of intriguing quotations concerning Tolstoy's life, though it is weak on Tolstoy's works. HENRI TROYAT, Tolstoy (1967, reprinted 1980; originally published in French, 1965), captures the drama of Tolstoy's life; it is marred, however, by the use of autobiographical fiction as if it were nonfictional documents. Because Troyat is skeptical of Tolstoy's religious teachings, his biography is a useful counterpoint to Maude's. A whimsical biography by a prominent Russian writer and critic is VICTOR SHKLOVSKY (VIKTOR SHKLOVSKII), Lev Tolstoy (1978; originally published in Russian, 1963). Also of interest is A.N. WILSON, Tolstoy (1988). N.N. GUSEV, Letopis' zhizni i tvorchestva L'va Nikolaevicha Tolstogo, 2 vol. (1958-60), is a chronology of facts.

Informative works on Tolstoy's wife are The Diaries of Sophia Tolstoy, trans. by CATHY PORTER (1985); and S.A. TOLSTAIA, Autobiography of Countess Tolstoy, trans. from Russian by S.S. KOTELIANSKY and LEONARD WOOLF (also published as The Autobiography of Countess Sophie Tolstoi, 1922). Accounts of the Tolstoy's marriage are CYNTHIA ASQUITH, Married to Tolstoy (1960); ANNE EDWARDS, Sonya: The Life of Countess Tolstoy (1981); and LOUISE SMOLUCHOWSKI, Lev and Sonya: The Story of the Tolstoy Marriage (1987). ALEXANDRA TOLSTOY, Tolstoy: A Life of My Father (1953, reissued 1975; originally published in Russian, 2 vol., 1953), presents another view.

 

10.2 Criticism.

A number of anthologies include Russian and Western criticism spanning the period from Tolstoy's time to the present. Especially useful are HENRY GIFFORD (ed.), Leo Tolstoy: A Critical Anthology (1971); A.V. KNOWLES (ed.), Tolstoy: The Critical Heritage (1978); and EDWARD WASIOLEK (ed.), Critical Essays on Tolstoy (1986). Other collections of historical criticism are DONALD DAVIE (ed.), Russian Literature and Modern English Fiction: A Collection of Critical Essays (1965); HAROLD BLOOM (ed.), Leo Tolstoy (1986); and RALPH E. MATLAW (ed.), Tolstoy: A Collection of Critical Essays (1967). Collections of recent criticism include MALCOLM JONES (ed.), New Essays on Tolstoy (1978); and HUGH McLEAN (ed.), In the Shade of the Giant: Essays on Tolstoy (1989). A number of excellent works of Russian criticism are available in translation--e.g., KONSTANTIN LEONTIEV, "The Novels of Count L.N. Tolstoy: Analysis, Style, and Atmosphere--A Critical Study," in SPENCER E. ROBERTS (ed. and trans.), Essays in Russian Literature: The Conservative View (1968), pp. 225-356; and DMITRI MEREJKOWSKI (DMITRY S. MEREZHKOVSKY), Tolstoi As Man and Artist (1902, reprinted 1970; originally published in Russian, 1901). BORIS EIKHENBAUM, The Young Tolstoi (1972; originally published in Russian, 1922), Tolstoi in the Sixties (1982; originally published in Russian, 1931), and Tolstoi in the Seventies (1982; originally published in Russian, 1960), are three works by a writer who is, by common consent, the greatest Tolstoy critic, although many disagree with his preference for purely formal explanations.

General overviews of Tolstoy's works may be found in GEORGE STEINER, Tolstoy or Dostoevsky: An Essay in the Old Criticism (1959, reprinted 1985), a lively study; EDWARD WASIOLEK, Tolstoy's Major Fiction (1978); R.F. CHRISTIAN, Tolstoy: A Critical Introduction (1969); and JOHN BAYLEY, Tolstoy and the Novel (1966, reissued 1988). An influential view of Tolstoy as a lifelong religious thinker is RICHARD F. GUSTAFSON, Leo Tolstoy: Resident and Stranger: A Study in Fiction and Theology (1986).

Studies on War and Peace include ISAIAH BERLIN, The Hedgehog and the Fox: An Essay on Tolstoy's View of History (1953, reprinted 1993); R.F. CHRISTIAN, Tolstoy's "War and Peace" (1962); GARY SAUL MORSON, Hidden in Plain View: Narrative and Creative Potentials in "War and Peace" (1987); and the essays in the Norton critical edition of the novel cited above. On Anna Karenina, the essays in the Norton critical edition, also cited above, are helpful, especially the piece by BARBARA HARDY, "Form and Freedom: Tolstoy's Anna Karenina," pp. 877-899. Tolstoy's Short Fiction, ed. and trans. by MICHAEL R. KATZ (1991), a Norton critical edition, contains an excellent selection of criticism.

Tolstoy's views of art are outlined in the brief work by GEORGE GIBIAN, Tolstoj and Shakespeare (1957, reprinted 1974); and RIMVYDAS SILBAJORIS, Tolstoy's Aesthetics and His Art (1991). Tolstoy and sexuality are dealt with in PETER ULF M¨ªLLER, Postlude to The Kreutzer Sonata: Tolstoj and the Debate on Sexual Morality in Russian Literature in the 1890s (1988; originally published in Danish, 1983). Much fine material appears in Tolstoy Studies Journal (annual). (G.S.M.)

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