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[ Home ] [ About Tolstoy ] [ Works Before 1876 ] [ Works After 1876 ] [ A Confession ] [ What I Believe ] [ Gospel In Brief ] [ Kingdom of God ] [ What Is Art? ] [ Tolstoy and His Message ] [ Tolstoy As a Schoolmaster ] [ Introduction to Tolstoy's Writings ] [ Non-Violence / Non-Resistant ] [ Tolstoy Links ] [ Patriotism and Government ] [ Thou Shall Not Kill ] [ To the Tsar and His Assistants ] [ A Letter to Russian Liberals ] [ A Letter to a Hindu ] [ Letter to Gandhi ] [ To The Working People ] [ On Non-Resistance ] [ Last Message to Mankind ]
[ Intro by Aylmer Maude ] [ Intro by Flowers ] [ by Sanderson Beck ] [ by E.T. Simmons ] [ by Gary Saul Morson ] [ by Park Noja ] [ Å罺ÅäÀÌ ¿¬º¸ ]
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Å罺ÅäÀÌ
(Leo Tolstoy)
by Gary Saul Morson |
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1. ¼·Ð
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Leo Tolstoy
(Lev Nikolayevich, Count Tolstoy), a master of realist fiction, is best known
for his two longest works, War and Peace
and Anna Karenina, which are commonly
regarded as among the finest novels ever written. War
and Peace in particular seems virtually to define this form for many readers
and critics. Among Tolstoy's shorter works, The
Death of Ivan Ilyich is usually classed among the best examples of the
novella. Especially during his last three decades Tolstoy also achieved world
renown as a moral and religious teacher. His doctrine of
nonresistance to evil
had an important influence on Gandhi. Although Tolstoy's religious ideas no
longer command the respect they once did, interest in his life and personality
has, if anything, increased over the years. |
Å罺ÅäÀÌ (Lev Nikolayevich,
Count Tolstoy)´Â Çö½ÇÁÖÀÇ ¼Ò¼³ÀÇ ´ë°¡·Î¼, ±×ÀÇ µÎ °¡Áö ÀåÆíÀÎ, ÀüÀï°ú ÆòÈ (War and Peace)
¹× ¾È³ª Ä«·¹´Ï³ª (Anna Karenina)·Î À¯¸íÇϸç, ÀÌ ÀÛǰµéÀº Åë»ó ÀÌÁ¦±îÁö ¾²¿©Áø °¡Àå ÈǸ¢ÇÑ ¼Ò¼³µé·Î¼
¿©°ÜÁö°í ÀÖ´Ù. ÀüÀï°ú Æòȴ ƯÈ÷ »ç½Ç»ó ¸¹Àº µ¶ÀÚµé°ú ºñÆò°¡µéÀ» À§ÇØ ÀÌ·± Çü½ÄÀ» Á¤ÀÇÇÏ´Â °Íó·³ º¸ÀδÙ. Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ ´ÜÆíÀÛµé
Áß¿¡¼, ÀÌ¹Ý Àϸ®Ä¡ÀÇ Á×À½(The Death of Ivan Illyich)Àº º¸Åë ÁßÆí ¼Ò¼³ÀÇ °¡Àå ÈǸ¢ÇÑ ¿¹µé·Î
ºÐ·ùµÈ´Ù. ƯÈ÷ ±×ÀÇ ¸¸³âÀÇ »ï½Ê ³â µ¿¾È Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ¶ÇÇÑ µµ´ö ¹× Á¾±³ ¼±»ýÀ¸·Î¼ ¼¼»óÀÇ ¸í¼ºÀ» ¾ò¾ú´Ù. ±×ÀÇ ½ÅÁ¶ÀÎ ¾Ç¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¹«ÀúÇ×Àº
°£µð¿¡°Ô Áß¿äÇÑ ¿µÇâÀ» ³¢ÃÆ´Ù. ºñ·Ï Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ Á¾±³Àû »ç»óµéÀÌ ´õ ÀÌ»ó °ú°Å¿¡
±×·¨´ø °Íó·³ Á¸°æÀ» ²øÁö´Â ¸øÇÏÁö¸¸, ±×ÀÇ »î°ú ¼º°Ý¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Èï¹Ì´Â, ¹«¾ùº¸´Ùµµ, ¼¼¿ùÀÌ Èê·¯°¡¸é¼ Áõ°¡µÇ¾ú´Ù. |
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Most readers will agree with the
assessment of the 19th-century British poet and critic Matthew
Arnold that a novel by Tolstoy is not a work of art but a piece of life;
the 20th-century Russian author Isaak Babel
commented that, if the world could write by itself, it would write like Tolstoy.
Critics of diverse schools have agreed that somehow Tolstoy's works seem to
elude all artifice. Most have stressed his ability to observe the smallest
changes of consciousness and to record the slightest movements of the body. What
another novelist would describe as a single act of consciousness, Tolstoy
convincingly breaks down into a series of infinitesimally small steps. According
to the English writer Virginia Woolf, who took
for granted that Tolstoy was "the greatest of all novelists," these
observational powers elicited a kind of fear in readers, who "wish to
escape from the gaze which Tolstoy fixes on us." Those who visited Tolstoy
as an old man also reported feelings of great discomfort when he appeared to
understand their unspoken thoughts. It was commonplace to describe him as
godlike in his powers and titanic in his struggles to escape the limitations of
the human condition. Some viewed Tolstoy as the embodiment of nature and pure
vitality, others saw him as the incarnation of the world's conscience, but for
almost all who knew him or read his works, he was not just one of the greatest
writers who ever lived but a living symbol of the search for life's meaning. |
´ëºÎºÐÀÇ µ¶ÀÚµéÀº, Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ ¼Ò¼³Àº ¿¹¼ú ÀÛǰÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó »îÀÇ ÆÄÆíÀÌ´Ù¶ó°í ÇÑ,
19¼¼±â ¿µ±¹ÀÇ ½ÃÀÎÀÌÀÚ ºñÆò°¡ÀÎ ¸ÅÆ© ¾Æ³îµå Æò°¡¿¡ µ¿ÀÇÇÒ °ÍÀÌ´Ù; 20¼¼±âÀÇ ·¯½Ã¾Æ ÀÛ°¡ÀÎ ¾ÆÀÌ»è ¹Ùº§Àº ³íÆòÇϱ⸦, ¸¸ÀÏ ¼¼»óÀÌ ½º½º·Î
±ÛÀ» ¾µ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù¸é, Å罺ÅäÀÌó·³ ¾µ °ÍÀÌ´Ù¶ó°í ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ´Ù¾çÇÑ ÇÐÆÄÀÇ ºñÆò°¡µéÀÌ ¾î·µç Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ ÀÛǰµéÀº ¸ðµç ³ó°£µéÀ» ºüÁ®³ª°¡´Â °Íó·³
º¸ÀδÙ. ´ëºÎºÐÀÇ ºñÆò°¡µéÀº ÀǽĿ¡ ´ëÇÑ Áö±ØÈ÷ ÀÛÀº º¯Èµéµµ °üÂûÇÏ¸ç ½ÅüÀÇ ¹Ì¹ÌÇÑ ¿òÁ÷Àӵ鵵 ±â·ÏÇÏ´Â ±×ÀÇ ´É·ÂÀ» °Á¶ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ´Ù¸¥
¼Ò¼³°¡µéÀº ÀǽÄÀÇ ÇÑ °¡Áö ´ÜÀÏÇÑ ÇàÀ§·Î¼ ¹¦»çÇÏ´Â °ÍÀ», Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ÀÏ·ÃÀÇ ¹«ÇÑÈ÷ ÀÛÀº ´Ü°è·Î ±×·²µíÇÏ°Ô Âɰ³¾î ³ª°£´Ù. ¿µ±¹ÀÇ ÀÛ°¡ÀÎ
¹öÁö´Ï¾Æ ¿ïÇÁ¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ±×´Â ´ç¿¬È÷ Å罺ÅäÀ̸¦ "¸ðµç ¼Ò¼³°¡µé Áß¿¡¼ °¡Àå ÈǸ¢ÇÏ´Ù"°í ¿©°å´Âµ¥, ÀÌ¿Í °°Àº °üÂû·ÂµéÀº µ¶Àڵ鿡°Ô ÀÏÁ¾ÀÇ
µÎ·Á¿òÀ» ²ø¾î³»¾úÀ¸¸ç, ±×µéÀº "Å罺ÅäÀ̰¡ ¿ì¸®µé À§¿¡ °íÁ¤Çϰí ÀÖ´Â ½Ã¼±À¸·ÎºÎÅÍ µµ¸Á°¡°í ½Í¾î ÇÑ´Ù"°í ¸»Çß´Ù. ¸¸³âÀÇ Å罺ÅäÀ̸¦ ¹æ¹®ÇÑ
»ç¶÷µé ¿ª½Ã ±×°¡ ÀڽŵéÀÇ ³»¹ñÁö ¾ÊÀº »ç»óµéÀ» ÀÌÇØÇϰí ÀÖ´Â °Íó·³ º¸¿´À» ¶§ÀÇ ¹«Ã´ ºÒÆíÇÔ ´À³¦µéÀ» À̾߱â ÇÏ¿´´Ù. Å罺ÅäÀ̸¦
±×ÀÇ ´É·Âµé¿¡¼ ½Åó·³ ±×¸®°í Àΰ£ÀÇ Á¶°ÇµéÀÇ Á¦¾àµéÀ» Å»ÇÇÇÏ·Á´Â ±×ÀÇ ÅõÀïµé¿¡¼ °ÅÀÎÀ¸·Î ¹¦»çÇÏ´Â °ÍÀº ÈçÇÑ ÀÏÀ̾ú´Ù. ¾î¶² »ç¶÷µéÀº
Å罺ÅäÀ̸¦ ÀÚ¿¬°ú ¼ø¼öÇÑ È°·ÂÀÇ Çö½ÅÀ¸·Î º¸¾ÒÀ¸¸ç, ´Ù¸¥ »ç¶÷µéÀº ±×¸¦ ¼¼»óÀÇ ¾ç½ÉÀÇ È½ÅÀ¸·Î º¸¾ÒÀ¸³ª, ±×¸¦ ¾Ë°í ÀÖ´Â ¶Ç´Â ±×ÀÇ ÀÛǰµéÀ»
ÀÐÀº °ÅÀÇ ¸ðµç »ç¶÷µé¿¡°Ô ÀÖ¾î¼, ±×´Â ´ÜÁö ÀÌÁ¦±îÁö »ýÁ¸ÇÏ¿´´ø °¡Àå À§´ëÇÑ ÀÛ°¡µé ÁßÀÇ ÇÑ »ç¶÷ÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó »îÀÇ Àǹ̸¦ Ž»öÇÏ´Â »ì¾ÆÀÖ´Â
»ó¡À̾ú´Ù.
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2. ÃʱâÀÇ »î
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The scion of prominent aristocrats,
Tolstoy was born on Aug. 28 (Sept. 9, New Style), 1828, at the family estate of
Yasnaya Polyana (about 130 miles [210 kilometres] south of Moscow in Tula
province), where he was to live the better part of his life and write his most
important works. His mother, Mariya Nikolayevna, née Princess
Volkonskaya, died before he was two years old, and his father Nikolay Ilich,
Count Tolstoy, followed her in 1837. His grandmother died 11 months later, and
then his next guardian, his aunt Aleksandra, in 1841. Tolstoy and his four
siblings were then transferred to the care of another aunt in Kazan, in western
Russia. Tolstoy remembered a cousin who lived at Yasnaya Polyana, Tatyana
Aleksandrovna Yergolskaya ("Aunt Toinette," as he called her), as the
greatest influence on his childhood, and later, as a young man, Tolstoy wrote
some of his most touching letters to her. Despite the constant presence of
death, Tolstoy remembered his childhood in idyllic terms. His first published
work, Detstvo (1852; Childhood),
was a fictionalized and nostalgic account of his early years. |
Áß¿äÇÑ ±ÍÁ·µéÀÇ ÈÄ¿¹·Î¼, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â 1828³â 8¿ù 28ÀÏ(½Å·Â 9¿ù 9ÀÏ), ¾ß½º³ª¾ß
Æú¸®³ª¾ß(¸ð½ºÅ©¹Ù ³²ÂÊÀÇ ¾à 130¸¶ÀÏ(210ų·Î¹ÌÅÍ)¿¡ ÀÖ´Â Åø¶ó Áö¹æ) ÀÇ °¡Á· ÀúÅÿ¡¼ Ãâ»ýÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, ±×°÷¿¡¼ ±×´Â ±×ÀÇ »îÀÇ Á»´õ ³ªÀº
ÀϺθ¦ »ì¾ÒÀ¸¸ç ±×ÀÇ ´ëºÎºÐÀÇ Áß¿äÇÑ ÀÛǰµéÀ» ¾²°Ô µÇ¾ú´Ù. ±×ÀÇ ¾î¸Ó´ÏÀÎ, ¸¶¸®¾ß ´ÏÄݶ󿹺곪´Â, ÀÌÀü¿¡ º¼ÄܽºÄ«¾ß °øÁַμ ¾Ë·ÁÁ® ÀÖ¾úÀ¸¸ç,
±×°¡ 2»ìÀÌ µÇ¾úÀ» ¶§ »ç¸ÁÇßÀ¸¸ç, ±×ÀÇ ¾Æ¹öÁö ´ÏÄݶóÀÌ Àϸ®Ä¡, Å罺ÅäÀÌ ¹éÀÛÀº, 1837³â ±×³àÀÇ µÚ¸¦ µû¶ó°¬´Ù. ±×ÀÇ ÇÒ¸Ó´Ï´Â 11°³¿ù
µÚ¿¡ »ç¸ÁÇÏ¿´°í, ±×¸®°í ³ª¼ ´ÙÀ½Àº ±×ÀÇ ÈİßÀÎÀÌ¸ç ¼÷¸ðÀÎ ¾Ë·º»êµå¶ó°¡ 1841³â »ç¸ÁÇÏ¿´´Ù. Å罺ÅäÀÌ¿Í ±×ÀÇ ³× ¸íÀÇ ÇüÁ¦µéÀº ±× ÈÄ ¼ºÎ
·¯½Ã¾ÆÀÇ Ä«ÀÜ¿¡ ÀÖ´Â ´Ù¸¥ ¼÷¸ðÀÇ º¸È£·Î ¿Å°ÜÁ³´Ù. Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ¾ß½º³ª¾ß Æú¸®³ª¾ß¿¡ »ì¾Ò´ø ´Ù¸¥ »çÃÌÀÎ, ŸƼ¾ß³ª ¾Ë·º»êµå·Îºê³ª ¿¹¸£°ñ½ºÅ¸¾ß¸¦,
±×ÀÇ À¯³â±â¿¡ °¡Àå ¸·´ëÇÑ ¿µÇâÀ» ÁÖ¾ú´Ù°í ±â¾ïÇÏ¿´°í, ÈÄÀÏ, û³âÀ¸·Î¼, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ±×³à¿¡°Ô ±×ÀÇ °¡Àå °¨µ¿ÀûÀÎ ¸î ÆíÀÇ ÆíÁöµéÀ»
½è¾ú´Ù. ²÷ÀÓ¾øÀÌ ¸Â°Ô µÇ´Â Á×À½¿¡µµ ºÒ±¸Çϰí, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿î ¿ë¾î·Î ±×ÀÇ À¯³â±â¸¦ ±â¾ïÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×ÀÇ ÃÖÃÊ ÃâÆÇÀÛǰÀÎ, µ¥½ºÆ®º¸(1852; Detstvo,
Childhood)´Â, ±×ÀÇ Ãʳ⿡ °üÇÑ Ç㱸ÀûÀ̸ç Çâ¼ö ¾î¸° À̾߱⿴´Ù. |
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Educated at home by tutors, Tolstoy
enrolled in the University of Kazan in 1844 as a student of Oriental languages.
His poor record soon forced him to transfer to the less demanding law faculty,
where he wrote a comparison of the French political philosopher Charles de
Secondat de Montesquieu's The Spirit of
Laws and Catherine II the Great's nakaz
(instructions for a law code). Interested in literature and ethics, he was drawn
to the works of the English novelists Laurence Sterne and Charles Dickens and,
especially, to the writings of the French philosopher Jean-Jacques
Rousseau; in place of a cross, he wore a medallion with a portrait of
Rousseau. But he spent most of his time trying to be comme il faut (socially
correct), drinking, gambling, and engaging in debauchery. After leaving the
university in 1847 without a degree, Tolstoy returned to Yasnaya Polyana, where
he planned to educate himself, to manage his estate, and to improve the lot of
his serfs. Despite frequent resolutions to change his ways, he continued his
loose life during stays in Tula, Moscow, and St. Petersburg. In 1851 he joined
his older brother Nikolay, an army officer, in the Caucasus and then entered the
army himself. He took part in campaigns against the native Caucasian tribes and,
soon after, in the Crimean War (1853-56). |
°¡Á¤±³»çµé¿¡°Ô Áý¿¡¼ ±³À°¹ÞÀº µÚ¿¡, 1844³â Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â Ä«ÀÜ ´ëÇп¡ µ¿¾ç ¾îÇÐ ÇлýÀ¸·Î
µî·ÏÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×ÀÇ ÇüÆí¾ø´Â ¼ºÀûÀº °ð ±×·Î ÇÏ¿©±Ý ´ú ¾Ð¹ÚÀ» ÁÖ´Â ¹ý·üÇкηΠ¿Å±âµµ·Ï ¸¸µé¾úÀ¸¸ç, ±×°÷¿¡¼ ±×´Â ÇÁ¶û½ºÀÇ Á¤Ä¡ öÇÐÀÚÀÎ ¸ùÅ×½ºÅ°ÀÇ
Âû½º 2¼¼ÀÇ ¹ýÀÇ Á¤½Å°ú ±îÆ®¸°´À 2¼¼ ´ëÁ¦ÀÇ ³ªÄ«Áî(¹ý·ü ¸í·É)ÀÇ ºñ±³¸¦ ½è´Ù. ¹®Çаú À±¸®Çп¡ Èï¹Ì¸¦
°¡Á³À¸¹Ç·Î, ±×´Â ¿µ±¹ÀÇ ¼Ò¼³°¡µéÀÎ ·Î·»½º ½ºÅÏ ¹× Âû½º µðŲ½ºÀÇ ÀÛǰµé¿¡, Ưº°È÷, ÇÁ¶û½º öÇÐÀÚÀÎ ÀåÀÚÅ© ·ç¼ÒÀÇ ÀÛǰµé¿¡
½ÉÃëÇÏ¿´´Ù; ½ÊÀÚ°¡ ´ë½Å¿¡ ±×´Â ·ç¼ÒÀÇ ÃÊ»óȸ¦ ´ãÀº ¸Þ´ÞÀ» ¸Þ°í ´Ù´Ñ °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ±×·¯³ª ±×´Â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ½Ã°£ ´ëºÎºÐÀ» (»çȸÀûÀ¸·Î ¹Ù¸¥) ǰÀ§,
À½ÁÖ, µµ¹Ú ¹× ³ºÀ¿¡ ¼ÒºñÇß´Ù. 1847³â ÇÐÀ§ ¾øÀÌ ´ëÇÐÀ» ¶°³ µÚ, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ¾ß½º³ª¾ß Æú¸®¾ß³ª¿¡ µ¹¾Æ °¬À¸¸ç, ±×°÷¿¡¼ ±×´Â µ¶ÇÐÇϸç,
ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ºÎµ¿»êÀ» °ü¸®Çϰí, ±×ÀÇ ³ó³ëµéÀÇ ¿î¸íÀ» °³¼±ÇÒ °ÍÀ» °èȹÇÏ¿´´Ù. ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ¹æ½ÄµéÀ» ¹Ù²Ù·ÁÇÏ´Â ÀæÀº °á½Éµé¿¡µµ ºÒ±¸Çϰí, Åø¶ó, ¸ð½ºÅ©¹Ù
¹× ¼º ÆäÅ×½ººÎ¸£Å©¿¡ üÀçÇÏ´Â µ¿¾È ´À½¼ÇÑ »îÀ» °è¼ÓÇÏ¿´´Ù. 1851³â¿¡ ±×´Â ÄÚÄ«¼½º¿¡ ÀÖ´Â ±×ÀÇ ÇüÀÎ ´ÏÄݶóÀÌ¿Í ÇÔ²²ÇÏ¿´´Âµ¥ ±×´Â À°±º
Àå±³¿´À¸¸ç, ±× ÈÄ Àڽŵµ À°±º¿¡ ÀÔ´ëÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×´Â ÅäÂø¹ÎÀÎ ÄÚÄ«¼½º Á¾Á·µé¿¡ ¸Â¼¼ ÀüÅõ¿¡ Âü°¡ÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, °ð À̾î¼, Å©¸®¹Ì¾Æ
ÀüÀï(1853-56)¿¡ Âü°¡ÇÏ¿´´Ù.
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In 1847 Tolstoy began keeping a diary,
which became his laboratory for experiments in self-analysis and, later, for his
fiction. With some interruptions, Tolstoy kept his diaries throughout his life,
and he is therefore one of the most copiously documented writers who ever lived.
Reflecting the life he was leading, his first diary begins by confiding that he
may have contracted a venereal disease. The early diaries record a fascination
with rule-making, as Tolstoy composed rules for diverse aspects of social and
moral behavior. They also record the writer's repeated failure to honor these
rules, his attempts to formulate new ones designed to ensure obedience to old
ones, and his frequent acts of self-castigation. Tolstoy's later belief that
life is too complex and disordered ever to conform to rules or philosophical
systems perhaps derives from these futile attempts at self-regulation. |
1847³â Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â Àϱ⸦ ¾²±â ½ÃÀÛÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, ±×°ÍÀº ÀÚ¾Æ ºÐ¼®¿¡ ÀÖ¾î¼ ½ÇÇèµé, ±×¸®°í
ÈÄÀÏ¿¡ ±×ÀÇ ¼Ò¼³ ¹®ÇÐÀ» À§ÇÑ ½ÇÇè½ÇÀÌ µÇ¾ú´Ù. ÀϺΠÁß´ÜµÈ °÷µµ ÀÖÁö¸¸, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ±×ÀÇ ÀϱâµéÀ» Æò»ý µ¿¾È ½á³ª°¬À¸¸ç, ±×·¯¹Ç·Î ±×´Â ÀÌÁ¦²¯
»ì¾Æ¿Â °¡Àå dzºÎÇÏ°Ô ±â·ÏÀ» ³²±ä ÀÛ°¡µé ÁßÀÇ ÇϳªÀÌ´Ù. ±×°¡ ¿µÀ§Çϰí ÀÖ¾ú´ø »îÀ» ȸ°íÇϸé¼, ±×ÀÇ Ã¹ ¹øÂ° Àϱâ´Â ¼ºº´¿¡ °É¸° °Í °°´Ù°í
Åоî³õÀ¸¸é¼ ½ÃÀÛÇÑ´Ù. ÃʱâÀÇ ÀϱâµéÀº ±ÔÄ¢ ¸¸µé±â¿¡ ¸Å·áµÇ¾úÀ½À» ±â·ÏÇϴµ¥, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â »çȸÀû ¹× µµ´öÀû Çൿ¿¡ °üÇÑ ´Ù¾çÇÑ Çö»óµé¿¡ ´ëÇÑ
±ÔÄ¢µéÀ» ¸¸µé¾î °¬´Ù. ±×°ÍµéÀº ¶ÇÇÑ ÀÌµé ±ÔÄ¢µéÀ» Á¸ÁßÇÔ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ µÇÇ®À̵Ǵ ÀÛ°¡ÀÇ ½ÇÆÐ¸¦ ±â·ÏÇϸç, ±×´Â ¿¾ °Íµé¿¡ ´ëÇÑ º¹Á¾, ±×¸®°í ±×ÀÇ
ÀæÀº ÀÚÃ¥ ÇàÀ§µéÀ» È®½ÇÈ÷ ÇÏ·Á°í °í¾ÈµÈ »õ·Î¿î °ÍµéÀ» ±ÔÁ¤ÇÏ·Á ½ÃµµÇÏ¿´´Ù.
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3. óÀ½ÀÇ ÀÛǰµé.
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Concealing his identity, Tolstoy
submitted Childhood for publication in
Sovremennik ("The
Contemporary"), a prominent journal edited by the poet Nikolay
Nekrasov. Nekrasov was enthusiastic, and the pseudonymously published
work was widely praised. During the next few years Tolstoy published a number of
stories based on his experiences in the Caucasus, including "Nabeg"
(1853; "The Raid") and his three sketches about the Siege
of Sevastopol during the Crimean War: "Sevastopol v dekabre
mesyatse" ("Sevastopol in December"), "Sevastopol v
maye" ("Sevastopol in May"), and "Sevastopol v avguste 1855
goda" ("Sevastopol in August"; all published 1855-56). The first
sketch, which deals with the courage of simple soldiers, was praised by the
tsar. Written in the second person as if it were a tour guide, this story also
demonstrates Tolstoy's keen interest in formal experimentation and his lifelong
concern with the morality of observing other people's suffering. The second
sketch includes a lengthy passage of a soldier's stream of consciousness (one of
the early uses of this device) in the instant before he is killed by a bomb. In
the story's famous ending, the author, after commenting that none of his
characters are truly heroic, asserts that "the hero of my story--whom I
love with all the power of my soul . . . who was, is, and ever will be
beautiful--is the truth." Readers ever since have remarked on Tolstoy's
ability to make such "absolute language," which usually ruins
realistic fiction, aesthetically effective. |
ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ½ÅºÐÀ» ¼û±â°í¼, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â À¯³â½ÃÀýÀ», ½ÃÀÎ ´ÏÄݶóÀÌ ³×Å©¶ó¼ÒÇÁ°¡ ÆíÁýÀåÀÎ À¯¸íÇÑ ÀâÁöÀÎ, ¼Òºê·¹¸Þ´ÏÅ© ("Çö´ëÀÎ")¿¡¼ ÃâÆÇÇϱâ À§ÇØ
±â°íÇÏ¿´´Ù. ³×Å©¶ó¼ÒÇÁ´Â ¿±¤ÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, À͸íÀ¸·Î ÃâÆÇµÈ ÀÛǰÀº µÎ·ç ĪÂù ¹Þ¾Ò´Ù. ´ÙÀ½ ¸î ³â µ¿¾È Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ÄÚÄ«¼½º¿¡¼ÀÇ ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ °æÇèµéÀ»
Åä´ë·ÎÇÑ ¸¹Àº À̾߱âµéÀ» ÃâÆÇÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, "Nabeg"(1853, "½À°Ý") ¹× Å©¸®¹Ì¾Æ ÀüÀï ÁßÀÇ ¼¼¹Ù½ºÅäÆú
Æ÷À§¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¼¼°¡Áö ½ºÄÉÄ¡µé - "Sevastopol v dekabre
mesyatse " ("12¿ùÀÇ ¼¼¹Ù½ºÅäÆú"), "Sevastopol v maye " ("5¿ùÀÇ
¼¼¹Ù½ºÅäÆú"), ±×¸®°í "Sevastopol v avguste 1855
goda" ("8¿ùÀÇ ¼¼¹Ù½ºÅäÆú"; ¸ðµÎ 1855-56³â¿¡ ÃâÆÇµÇ¾úÀ½) - ÀÌ
Æ÷ÇԵǾú´Ù. óÀ½ÀÇ ½ºÄÉÄ¡´Â, ¹«¸íÀÇ º´»çµéÀÇ ¿ë±â¸¦ ´Ù·ç¾ú´Âµ¥, ȲÁ¦¿¡ ÀÇÇØ ĪÂù ¹Þ¾Ò´Ù. ¸¶Ä¡ ¿©Çà ¾È³»Ã³·³ 2ÀÎĪÀ¸·Î ¾²¿©Á³À¸¸ç, ÀÌ À̾߱â´Â
¿ª½Ã Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ ¾ö°ÝÇÑ ½ÇÇè¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¿¹¸®ÇÑ °ü½É°ú ´Ù¸¥ »ç¶÷µéÀÇ °íÅëÀ» °üÂûÇÔ¿¡ ÀÖ¾î¼ÀÇ µµ´ö¼º¿¡ °üÇÑ ±×ÀÇ Æò»ýÀÇ °ü½ÉÀ» Áõ°ÅÇØÁØ´Ù. µÎ
¹øÂ°ÀÇ
½ºÄÉÄ¡´Â Æø°Ý¿¡ Á×±â Á÷ÀüÀÇ º´»çÀÇ (ÀÌ·± ÀåÄ¡ÀÇ ÃʱâÀÇ »ç¿ëµé ÁßÀÇ ÇϳªÀÎ) ÀǽÄÀÇ È帧À» ´ãÀº ±ä ±¸ÀýÀ» Æ÷ÇÔÇÑ´Ù. À̾߱âÀÇ
À¯¸íÇÑ ¸»¹Ì¿¡¼, ÀÛ°¡´Â, ±×ÀÇ ¾î´À µîÀåÀι°µµ ÁøÁ¤À¸·Î ¿ª»çÀûÀÌ ¾Æ´ÔÀ» ¾ð±ÞÇÑ µÚ¿¡, "³ªÀÇ À̾߱âÀÇ ¿µ¿õ -- ³ª´Â ¿µÈ¥ÀÇ ¸ðµç ÈûÀ¸·Î ±×¸¦
»ç¶ûÇÑ´Ù... ±×´Â, Áö±Ýµµ ±×¸®°í ¾ðÁ¦³ª ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿ï °ÍÀÌ´Ù -- Àº Áø¸®ÀÌ´Ù"¶ó°í ´Ü¾ðÇÑ´Ù. µ¶ÀÚµéÀº ±× ÀÌÈÄ·Î Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ ±×¿Í °°ÀÌ "Àý´ë
¾ð¾î"¸¦ ±¸»çÇÏ´Â ´É·Â¿¡ ÁÖ¸ñÀ» ÇØ¿ÔÀ¸¸ç, ÀÌ ¾ð¾î´Â ÈçÈ÷ ¹ÌÇÐÀûÀ¸·Î È¿°úÀûÀÎ Çö½ÇÁÖÀÇÀû ¼Ò¼³¹®ÇÐÀ» ºØ±«½ÃŲ´Ù.
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After the Crimean War Tolstoy resigned
from the army and was at first hailed by the literary world of St. Petersburg.
But his prickly vanity, his refusal to join any intellectual camp, and his
insistence on his complete independence soon earned him the dislike of the
radical intelligentsia. He was to remain throughout his life an
"archaist," opposed to prevailing intellectual trends. In 1857 Tolstoy
traveled to Paris and returned after having gambled away his money. |
Å©¸®¹Ì¾Æ ÀüÀï ÈÄ¿¡ Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ±º´ë¿¡¼ ¹°·¯³µÀ¸¸ç Á¦ÀÏ ¸ÕÀú ¼º ÆäÅ×½ººÎ¸£Å©ÀÇ ¹®Çм¼°è¿¡¼ ȯ¿µ ¹Þ¾Ò´Ù. ±×·¯³ª ±×ÀÇ °¡½Ã µ¸Ä£ ÀÚ¸¸½É, ¾î¶² ÁöÀû
Áø¿µ¿¡µµ °¡ÀÔÇÒ °Í¿¡ ´ëÇÑ °ÅºÎ, ±×¸®°í ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ¿ÏÀüÇÑ µ¶¸³ÀÇ °íÁýÀº °ð ±ÞÁøÀûÀÎ Áö½ÄÀεéÀÇ ¹Ý°¨À» ºÒ·¯¿Ô´Ù. ±×´Â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ Æò»ýÀ» ÅëÇÏ¿©
"ÀǰíÁÖÀÇÀÚ(ëôͯñ«ëùíº)"·Î ÀÖÀ¸¸é¼, Áö¹èÀûÀÎ ÁöÀû °æÇâµé°ú ¹Ý¸ñÇÏ¿´´Ù. 1857³â¿¡ Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ÆÄ¸®¸¦ ¿©ÇàÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ µ·À» µµ¹ÚÀ¸·Î ³¯¸°
µÚ¿¡ µ¹¾Æ¿Ô´Ù. |
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After his return to Russia, he decided
that his real vocation was pedagogy, and so he organized a school for peasant
children on his estate. After touring western Europe to study pedagogical theory
and practice, he published 12 issues of a journal, Yasnaya Polyana (1862-63), which included his provocative articles
"Progress i opredeleniye obrazovaniya" ("Progress and the
Definition of Education"), which denies that history has any underlying
laws, and "Komu u kogu uchitsya pisat, krestyanskim rebyatam u nas ili nam
u krestyanskikh rebyat?" ("Who Should Learn Writing of Whom: Peasant
Children of Us, or We of Peasant Children?"), which reverses the usual
answer to the question. Tolstoy married Sofya (Sonya) Andreyevna Bers, the
daughter of a prominent Moscow physician, in 1862 and soon transferred all his
energies to his marriage and the composition of War and Peace. Tolstoy and his wife had 13 children, of whom 10
survived infancy. |
·¯½Ã¾Æ¿¡ µ¹¾Æ ¿Â ÈÄ¿¡, ±×´Â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ÁøÁ¤ÇÑ ¼Ò¸íÀº ±³À°À̶ó°í ¸¶À½¸Ô¾ú´Ù, ±×·¡¼ ±×´Â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ »çÀ¯Áö¿¡ ³ó¹Î ÀÚ³àµéÀ» À§ÇÑ Çб³¸¦ ¼¼¿ü´Ù. ±³À°
ÀÌ·Ð ¹× ½ÇÁ¦¸¦ °øºÎÇϱâ À§ÇÏ¿© ¼ºÎ À¯·´À» ¿©ÇàÇÑ µÚ¿¡, ±×´Â 12È£ÀÇ ÀâÁö, Yasnaya Polyana (1862-63)¸¦ ¹ßÇàÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç,
À̰͵鿡´Â ±×ÀÇ µµ¹ßÀûÀÎ ³í¹®µéÀÎ "Progress i opredeleniye obrazovaniya" ("Áøº¸
¹× ±³À°ÀÇ Á¤ÀÇ") - ¿©±â¼ ¿ª»ç°¡ ¾î¶² ³»ÀçÀûÀÎ ¹ýÄ¢µéÀÌ °¡Áö°í ÀÖ´Ù´Â °ÍÀ» ºÎÀÎÇÑ´Ù - , ±×¸®°í "Komu u kogu uchitsya pisat, krestyanskim rebyatam u nas ili nam
u krestyanskikh rebyat?" ("´©°¡ ´©±¸ÀÇ ÀÛǰÀ» Àоî¾ß¸¸ Çϴ°¡: ¿ì¸®ÀÇ ÀÚ³àµéÀÎ ³óºÎ ¾Æ´Ï¸é ³óºÎÀÇ ÀÚ³àµéÀÎ ¿ì¸®?") -
¿©±â¼ ¹®Á¦¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Åë»óÀûÀÎ ´äº¯À» µÚÁý´Â´Ù - ¸¦ Æ÷ÇÔÇÏ¿´´Ù. Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â 1862³â Àú¸íÇÑ ¸ð½ºÅ©¹ÙÀÇ ³»°ú ÀÇ»çÀÇ µþÀÎ ¼ÒÇÇ¾ß (¼Ò³Ä)
¾Èµå·¹¿¹ºê³ª º£¸£½º¿Í °áÈ¥ÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, °ð ±×ÀÇ ¸ðµç ÈûµéÀ» ±×ÀÇ °áÈ¥ ¹× ÀüÀï°ú ÆòÈÀÇ ÁýÇÊ¿¡ ½ñ¾Ò´Ù. Å罺ÅäÀÌ¿Í ±×ÀÇ ¾Æ³»´Â
13¸íÀÇ ÀÚ³àµéÀ» ³º¾ÒÀ¸¸ç, ±×µé Áß 10¸íÀÌ À¯¾Æ±â¸¦ ³Ñ°å´Ù. |
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Tolstoy's works during the late 1850s
and early 1860s experimented with new forms for expressing his moral and
philosophical concerns. To Childhood
he soon added Otrochestvo (1854; Boyhood)
and Yunost (1857; Youth). A
number of stories centre on a single semiautobiographical character, Dmitry
Nekhlyudov, who later reappeared as the hero of Tolstoy's novel Resurrection.
In "Lyutsern" (1857; "Lucerne"), Tolstoy uses the diary form
first to relate an incident, then to reflect on its timeless meaning, and
finally to reflect on the process of his own reflections. "Tri smerti"
(1859; "Three Deaths") describes the deaths of a noblewoman who cannot
face the fact that she is dying, of a peasant who accepts death simply, and, at
last, of a tree, whose utterly natural end contrasts with human artifice. Only
the author's transcendent consciousness unites these three events. |
1850³â´ë¿Í 1960³â´ëÀÇ Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ ÀÛǰµéÀº ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ µµ´öÀû ¹× öÇÐÀû °ü½ÉµéÀ» Ç¥ÇöÇÏ·Á´Â »õ·Î¿î Çü½ÄµéÀ» °¡Áö°í ½ÇÇèÇÏ¿´´Ù. À¯³â½ÃÀý¿¡
ÀÌ¾î¼ ±×´Â °ð Otrochestvo (1854; ¼Ò³â½ÃÀý)
±×¸®°í Yunost (1857; û³â)À» Ãß°¡ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¸¹Àº À̾߱âµéÀÌ À¯ÀÏÇÑ ¹ÝÀÚ¼ÀüÀûÀÎ ÁÖÀΰøÀÎ, µå¹ÌÆ®¸®
³×Ŭ·çµµÇÁ¿¡ ÁýÁߵǾîÀÖÀ¸¸ç, ±×´Â ÈÄÀÏ Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ ¼Ò¼³ÀÎ ºÎȰÀÇ ¿µ¿õÀ¸·Î ÀçµîÀåÇÏ¿´´Ù. "Lyutsern"(1857;
"·ç¼±")¿¡¼, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ÇÑ »ç°ÇÀ» ¾ð±ÞÇϱâ À§ÇÏ¿©, ±×¸®°í ³ª¼ ½Ã°£À» ÃÊ¿ùÇÑ Àǹ̸¦ ¼÷°íÇϸç, ±×¸®°í ¸¶Áö¸·À¸·Î ÀÚ±â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ¸í»óµéÀÇ °úÁ¤¿¡
´ëÇØ ¼÷°íÇÑ´Ù. "Tri smerti"
(1859; "¼¼ »ç¶÷ÀÇ Á×À½µé")Àº ÀÚ½ÅÀÌ Á׾°í ÀÖ´Ù´Â »ç½ÇÀ» Á÷½ÃÇÒ ¼ö ¾ø´Â ±ÍºÎÀÎÀÇ Á×À½, Á×À½À» ´Ü¼øÈ÷ ¹Þ¾ÆµéÀÌ´Â ÇÑ ³óºÎ,
±×¸®°í ±× öÀúÇÑ ÀÚ¿¬ÀÇ ¸ñÀûÀÌ Àΰ£ÀÇ ±â¸¸°ú ´ëºñµÇ´Â ÇÑ ±×·çÀÇ ³ª¹«ÀÇ Á×À½µéÀ» ¹¦»çÇÑ´Ù. ¿ÀÁ÷ ÀÛ°¡ÀÇ ÃÊ¿ùÀûÀÎ Àǽĸ¸ÀÌ ÀÌµé ¼¼ »ç°ÇµéÀ»
¹¾î ÁÙ »ÓÀÌ´Ù. |
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"Kholstomer" (written 1863;
revised and published 1886; "Kholstomer: The Story of a Horse") has
become famous for its dramatic use of a favourite Tolstoyan device,
"defamiliarization"--that is, the description of familiar social
practices from the "naive" perspective of an observer who does not
take them for granted. Readers were shocked to discover that the protagonist and
principal narrator of "Kholstomer" was an old horse. Like so many of
Tolstoy's early works, this story satirizes the artifice and conventionality of
human society, a theme that also dominates Tolstoy's novel Kazaki
(1863; The Cossacks). The hero of this
work, the dissolute and self-centred aristocrat Dmitry Olenin, enlists as a
cadet to serve in the Caucasus. Living among the Cossacks, he comes to
appreciate a life more in touch with natural and biological rhythms. In the
novel's central scene, Olenin, hunting in the woods, senses that every living
creature, even a mosquito, "is just such a separate Dmitry Olenin as I am
myself." Recognizing the futility of his past life, he resolves to live
entirely for others. |
"Kholstomer" (1863³â ÀÛ; 1886³â °³Á¤ ÃâÆÇ; "Kholstomer";
"¸»ÀÇ À̾߱â")´Â Àαâ ÀÖ´Â Å罺ÅäÀÌÀûÀÎ ÀåÄ¡ÀÎ "¾î»öÇÔ"ÀÇ ±ØÀûÀÎ »ç¿ëÀ¸·Î À¯¸íÇØÁ³´Ù--, Áï, "Ä£¼÷ÇÑ »çȸÀû °ü½ÀµéÀ» ´ç¿¬È÷
¿©±âÁö ¾Ê´Â ÇÑ °üÂûÀÚÀÇ "¼ø¹ÚÇÑ" °üÁ¡¿¡¼ ½ÃÀ۵Ǵ ¹¦»çÀÌ´Ù. µ¶ÀÚµéÀº "Kholstomer"ÀÇ ÁÖÀΰøÀÌÀÚ ÁÖµÈ ÈÀÚ°¡ ´ÄÀº ¸»ÀÎ
°ÍÀ» ¹ß°ßÇϰí´Â Ãæ°Ý ¹Þ¾Ò´Ù. ¹«Ã´ ¸¹Àº Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ Ãʱâ ÀÛǰµéó·³, ÀÌ À̾߱â´Â Àΰ£ »çȸÀÇ ±â¸¸°ú ÀνÀ¼ºÀ» dzÀÚÇϰí ÀÖÀ¸¸ç, ÀÌ´Â ¶ÇÇÑ
Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ ¼Ò¼³ Ä«ÀÚŰ(
(1863; ÄÚ»çÅ© »ç¶÷µé)¸¦ Áö¹èÇÏ¿´´ø ÁÖÁ¦ÀÌ´Ù. ÀÌ ÀÛǰÀÇ ¿µ¿õÀÎ, ¹æÅÁÇϸç ÀÚ±â Áß½ÉÀûÀÎ ±ÍÁ·, µå¹ÌÆ®¸® ¿Ã·¹´ÑÀÌ,
ÄÚÄ«¼½º¿¡¼ º¹¹«Çϱâ À§ÇÏ¿© Àå±³·Î ÀÔ´ëÇÑ´Ù. ÄÚ»çÅ© »ç¶÷µé ¾È¿¡¼ »ì¸é¼, ±×´Â ÀÚ¿¬°ú »ýü ¸®µëµé¿¡ ´õ¿í °¡±î¿î »îÀ» °¨»çÈ÷ ¿©±â°Ô µÈ´Ù.
¼Ò¼³ÀÇ Á᫐ Àå¸é¿¡¼, ¿Ã·¹´ÑÀº, ½£¼Ó¿¡¼ »ç³ÉÇÏ´ø Áß¿¡, ¸ðµç »ì¾Æ ÀÖ´Â ÇÇÁ¶¹°µéÀº, ½ÉÁö¾î ÇÑ ¸¶¸® ¸ð±â¶óµµ, "¹Ù·Î ³ª ÀڽŰú °°ÀÌ ´ÜÁö
±×·¸°Ô º°°³ÀÇ µå¹ÌÆ®¸® ¿Ã·¹´Ñ"ÀÎ °ÍÀ» Áö°¢ÇÑ´Ù. ÀÚ½ÅÀÌ °ú°Å »îÀÇ ÇêµÊÀ» ±ú´Ý°í¼, ±×´Â ÀüÀûÀ¸·Î ´Ù¸¥ »ç¶÷µéÀ» À§Çؼ »ì±â·Î °á½ÉÇÑ´Ù. |
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¡¡ |
¡¡ |
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4 À§´ëÇÑ ¼Ò¼³µéÀÇ ½Ã±â
(1863-77).
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Happily married and ensconced with his
wife and family at Yasnaya Polyana, Tolstoy reached the height of his creative
powers. He devoted the remaining years of the 1860s to writing War
and Peace. Then, after an interlude during which he considered writing a
novel about Peter I the Great and briefly returned to pedagogy (bringing out
reading primers that were widely used), Tolstoy wrote his other great novel, Anna
Karenina. These two works share a vision of human experience rooted in an
appreciation of everyday life and prosaic virtues. |
ÇູÇÏ°Ô °áÈ¥ÇÏ¿© ¾ß½º³ª¾ß Æú¸®¾ß³ª¿¡ ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ¾Æ³» ±×¸®°í °¡Á·°ú ¾ÈÂøÇÑ µÚ¿¡, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ Ã¢ÀǷµéÀÇ ÀýÁ¤¿¡ µµ´ÞÇß´Ù. Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â
1860³â´ëÀÇ ³ª¸ÓÁö ÇØµéÀ» ÀüÀï°ú ÆòÈÀÇ ÁýÇÊ¿¡ ½ñ¾Ò´Ù. ±×¸®°í ³ª¼, ÇÇÅÍ ´ëÁ¦ 1¼¼¿¡ °üÇÑ ¼Ò¼³À» ¾µ °ÍÀ» »ý°¢ÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç Àá½Ã
±³À°(³Î¸® »ç¿ëµÈ µ¶¼¿ë ÃÊ±Þ µ¶º»À» ¸¸µé¾î ³»¾ú´Ù)À¸·Î µ¹¾Æ°¬´ø ¸·°£ÀÇ ±â°£ µÚ¿¡, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ±×ÀÇ ¶Ç ÇϳªÀÇ À§´ëÇÑ ¼Ò¼³, ¾È³ª
Ä«·¹´Ï³ª¸¦ ÁýÇÊÇÏ¿´´Ù. ÀÌµé µÎ ÀÛǰµéÀº ÀÏ»ó»ýȰ°ú Áö·çÇÑ ¹Ì´öÀÇ ÀÌÇØ¿¡ »Ñ¸®¸¦ µÐ Àΰ£ÀÇ °æÇè¿¡ ´ëÇÑ È¯»óÀ» °øÀ¯ÇÑ´Ù. |
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¡¡ |
¡¡ |
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4.1 ÀüÀï°ú ÆòÈ
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Voyna
i mir (1865-69; War
and Peace) contains three kinds of material--a historical account of the
Napoleonic wars, the biographies of fictional characters, and a set of essays
about the philosophy of history. Critics from the 1860s to the present have
wondered how these three parts cohere, and many have faulted Tolstoy for
including the lengthy essays, but readers continue to respond to them with
undiminished enthusiasm. |
Voyna
i mir (1865-69; ÀüÀï°ú ÆòÈ)´Â ¼¼°¡Áö ÀÚ·áµé - ³ªÆú·¹¿Ë ½Ã±âÀÇ ÀüÀïµé¿¡ °üÇÑ ¿ª»çÀûÀÎ ÇØ¼³, Ç㱸Àû Àι°µéÀÇ
Àü±âµé, ±×¸®°í ¿ª»çÀÇ Ã¶Çп¡ °üÇÑ ÀÏ´ÜÀÇ ¼öÇʵé - À» ´ã°í ÀÖ´Ù. 1860 ³â´ëºÎÅÍ ÇöÀç±îÁöÀÇ ºñÆò°¡µéÀº ¾î°¼ ÀÌµé ¼¼ ºÎºÐµéÀÌ ¹ÐÂøÇÒ ¼ö
ÀÖ´ÂÁö ³î¶ó°í ÀÖÀ¸¸ç, ±×¸®°í ¸¹Àº »ç¶÷µéÀº Å罺ÅäÀ̰¡ Àå¹®ÀÇ ¼öÇʵéÀ» Æ÷ÇÔÇÑ °ÍÀ» Æ®ÁýÀâ°í ÀÖÀ¸³ª, µ¶ÀÚµéÀº ÁÙ¾îµéÁö ¾Ê´Â ¿Á¤À¸·Î¼ °è¼ÓÇØ¼
±×°Íµé¿¡ ¹ÝÀÀÀ» º¸À̰í ÀÖ´Ù. |
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The work's historical portions narrate
the campaign of 1805 leading to Napoleon's
victory at the Battle of Austerlitz, a period of
peace, and Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812. Contrary to generally accepted
views, Tolstoy portrays Napoleon as an ineffective, egomaniacal buffoon, Tsar
Alexander I as a phrasemaker obsessed with how historians will describe him, and
the Russian general Mikhail Kutuzov (previously disparaged) as a patient old man
who understands the limitations of human will and planning. Particularly
noteworthy are the novel's battle scenes, which show combat as sheer chaos.
Generals may imagine they can "anticipate all contingencies," but
battle is really the result of "a hundred million diverse chances"
decided on the moment by unforeseeable circumstances. In war
as in life, no system or model can come close to accounting for the infinite
complexity of human behaviour. |
ÀÛǰÀÇ ¿ª»ç °ü·Ã ºÎºÐÀº ¾Æ¿ì½ºÅ͸®Ã÷ ÀüÀï¿¡¼ ³ªÆú·¹¿ËÀÇ ½Â¸®·Î À̲ø°í°£ 1805³âÀÇ ÀüÅõ, ÆòÈÀÇ ½Ã±â, ±×¸®°í 1812³â ³ªÆú·¹¿ËÀÇ ·¯½Ã¾Æ
ħ°øÀ» ¼¼úÇϰí ÀÖ´Ù. ÀϹÝÀûÀ¸·Î ÀÎÁ¤µÈ ½Ã°¢µé°ú´Â ¹Ý´ë·Î, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ³ªÆú·¹¿ËÀ» ¹«´ÉÇϸç, ÀÚ±âÁ߽ɱ¤ÀûÀÎ ¾î¸´±¤´ë·Î, ȲÁ¦ÀÎ ¾Ë·º»ê´õ 1¼¼¸¦
¿ª»ç°¡µéÀÌ ±×¸¦ ¾î¶»°Ô ¹¦»çÇÒ °ÍÀΰ¡¿¡ ÁýÂøÇÏ´Â °ø¾ð°¡·Î, ±×¸®°í ·¯½Ã¾ÆÀÎ À屺ÀÎ ¹ÌÄ«ÀÏ Ä«ÅõÁ¶ÇÁ(ÀÌÀü¿¡´Â ºñ³ ¹Þ¾Ò´Ù)¸¦ Àΰ£ÀÇ ÀÇÁö¿Í °èȹÀÇ
ÇѰèµéÀ» ±ú´Ý°í ÀÖ´Â ÂüÀ»¼º ÀÖ´Â ³ëÀÎÀ¸·Î ¹¦»çÇÑ´Ù. Ưº°È÷ ÁÖ¸ñÇÒ ¸¸ÇÑ °ÍÀº ¼Ò¼³ÀÇ ÀüÀï Àå¸éµé·Î¼, ÀüÅõ´Â È¥¶õ ±× ÀÚüÀÓÀ» º¸¿©ÁØ´Ù.
À屺µéÀº ±×µéÀÌ "¸ðµç ºÎ¼öÀû »ç°ÇµéÀ» ¿¹Ãø"ÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù°í »ó»óÇÒÁö ¸ð¸£Áö¸¸, ÀüÀïÀº Á¤¸»·Î ¿¹ÃøÇÒ ¼ö ¾ø´Â »óȲµé¿¡ ÀÇÇÏ¿© ¼ø°£¿¡ °áÁ¤µÇ´Â
"¼ö¹é¸¸ °¡ÁöÀÇ ´Ù¾çÇÑ ¿ì¿¬µé"ÀÇ °á°úÀÌ´Ù. Àλý¿¡¼¿Í ¸¶Âù°¡Áö·Î ÀüÀï¿¡¼´Â, ¾î¶² Á¦µµ ¶Ç´Â ¸ðµ¨µµ Àΰ£ ÇൿÀÇ ¹«ÇÑÇÑ º¹À⼺¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¼³¸í¿¡
°¡±îÀÌ ´Ù°¡°¥ ¼ö ¾ø´Ù. |
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Among the book's fictional characters,
the reader's attention is first focused on Prince Andrey Bolkonsky, a proud man
who has come to despise everything fake, shallow, or merely conventional.
Recognizing the artifice of high society, he joins the army to achieve glory,
which he regards as truly meaningful. Badly wounded at Austerlitz, he comes to
see glory and Napoleon as no less petty than the salons of St. Petersburg. As
the novel progresses, Prince Andrey repeatedly discovers the emptiness of the
activities to which he has devoted himself. Tolstoy's description of his death
in 1812 is usually regarded as one of the most effective scenes in Russian
literature. |
¼Ò¼³Ã¥ÀÇ Ç㱸Àû Àι°µé Áß¿¡¼, µ¶ÀÚµéÀÇ °ü½ÉÀºÀº Á¦ÀÏ ¸ÕÀú ¾Èµå·¹ÀÌ º¼ÄܽºÆ¼ °øÀÛ¿¡ ÃÊÁ¡ÀÌ ÁÖ¾îÁö´Âµ¥, ±×´Â ¸ðµç °ÍÀ» °¡Â¥À̸ç, õ¹ÚÇϰųª,
´Ü¼øÈ÷ ÁøºÎÇÑ °ÍÀ¸·Î °æ¸êÇØ ¿Â °Å¸¸ÇÑ »ç¶÷ÀÌ´Ù. »ó·ù »çȸÀÇ À§¼±À» ÀÎÁ¤Çϸé¼, ±×´Â ¿µ±¤À» ¾ò±â À§ÇÏ¿© ±º´ë¿¡ µé¾î°¡¸ç, À̰ÍÀ» ±×´Â
ÁøÁ¤À¸·Î ÀǹÌÀÖ´Â °ÍÀ¸·Î ¿©±ä´Ù. ¾Æ¿ì½ºÅ͸®Ã÷¿¡¼ ½ÉÇÏ°Ô ºÎ»ó´çÇÏ°í ³ª¼, ±×´Â ¿µ±¤°ú ³ªÆú·¹¿ËÀ» ¼º ÆäÅ×½ººÎ¸£Å©ÀÇ »ç±³¸ðÀÓµé ¸¸ÅÀ̳ª ½Ã½ÃÇÑ
°ÍÀ¸·Î º¸°Ô µÈ´Ù. ¼Ò¼³ÀÌ ÁøÇàµÇ¸é¼, ¾Èµå·¹ÀÌ °øÀÛÀº ÀÚ½ÅÀÌ Çå½ÅÇÏ¿´´ø Ȱµ¿µé¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿© µÇÇ®ÀÌÇÏ¿© °øÇãÇÔÀ» ¹ß°ßÇÑ´Ù. 1812³â ±×ÀÌ
Á×À½¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ ¹¦»ç´Â ÈçÈ÷ ·¯½Ã¾Æ ¹®Çп¡¼ °¡Àå È¿°úÀûÀÎ Àå¸éµé ÁßÀÇ Çϳª·Î ¿©°ÜÁø´Ù. |
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The novel's other hero, the bumbling and
sincere Pierre Bezukhov, oscillates between belief in some philosophical system
promising to resolve all questions and a relativism so total as to leave him in
apathetic despair. He at last discovers the Tolstoyan truth that wisdom is to be
found not in systems but in the ordinary processes of daily life, especially in
his marriage to the novel's most memorable heroine, Natasha. When the book
stops--it does not really end but just breaks off--Pierre seems to be forgetting
this lesson in his enthusiasm for a new utopian plan. |
¼Ò¼³ÀÇ ¶Ç ÇϳªÀÇ ÁÖÀΰøÀº, ½Ç¼ö¸¦ ¿¬¹ßÇÏ¸ç ¼º½ÇÇÑ ÇÇ¿¡¸£ º£ÁÖÄÚÇÁ·Î¼, ¸ðµç Àǹ®µéÀ» ÇØ°áÇÒ °ÍÀ» ¾à¼ÓÇØ ÁÖ´Â ¾î¶² öÇÐÀû ü°è¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¹ÏÀ½°ú
±×¸¦ ¹«°¨°¢ÇÑ Àý¸ÁÀ¸·Î ¹Ð¾î ºÎÄ¥ ¸¸Å Àý´ëÀûÀÎ »ó´ë¼º »çÀÌ¿¡¼ Èçµé¸®°í ÀÖ´Ù. ±×´Â Àû¾îµµ, ÁöÇý´Â ü°è¿¡¼ ¹ß°ßµÇ´Â °ÍÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó ³ª³¯ÀÇ »îÀÇ
Æò¹üÇÑ ÁøÇà°úÁ¤µé¿¡¼ ¹ß°ßµÇ¾îÁöµµ·Ï µÇ¾î ÀÖ´Ù´Â, Å罺ÅäÀÌÀûÀÎ Áø¸®¸¦ ¹ß°ßÇϸç, Ưº°È÷ ¼Ò¼³¿¡¼ °¡Àå ±â¾ï¿¡ ³²´Â ¿©ÁÖÀΰøÀÎ, ³ªÅ¸»þ¿Í ±×ÀÇ
°áÈ¥¿¡¼ ±×·¯ÇÏ´Ù. Ã¥ÀÌ ¸ØÃâ ¶§¿¡ - »ç½Ç ±×°ÍÀº ³¡³ª´Â °ÍÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó °©Àڱ⠱×Ä¥ »ÓÀÌ´Ù - ÇÇ¿¡¸£´Â »õ·Î¿î À¯ÅäÇǾÆÀû °èȹ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ±×ÀÇ
ÈïºÐÀ¸·Î ÀÌ·± ±³ÈÆÀ» Àؾî¹ö¸®°í ÀÖ´Â °Íó·³ º¸ÀδÙ. |
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In accord with Tolstoy's idea that
prosaic, everyday activities make a life good or bad, the book's truly wise
characters are not its intellectuals but a simple, decent soldier, Natasha's
brother Nikolay, and a generous pious woman, Andrey's sister Marya. Their
marriage symbolizes the novel's central prosaic values. |
Èï¹Ì ¾ø°í, ÀÏ»óÀûÀΠȰµ¿µéÀÌ »îÀ» À¯ÀÍÇϰųª ¾ÇÇÏ°Ô ¸¸µç´Ù´Â Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ »ç»ó°ú °ü·ÃÇÏ¿©, Ã¥ ¼ÓÀÇ ÁøÁ¤ÇÑ ÁöÇý ÀÖ´Â Àι°µéÀº Áö½ÄÀεéÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó
´Ü¼øÇϸç Á¡ÀÝÀº º´»çÀÎ ³ªÅ¸»þÀÇ ÇüÁ¦ÀÎ, ´ÏÄݶóÀÌ, ±×¸®°í °ü´ëÇÏ¸ç ½Å¾Ó½ÉÀÌ ±íÀº ¿©ÀÚÀÎ, ¾Èµå·¹ÀÌÀÇ ´©ÀÌ ¸¶¸®¾ÆÀÌ´Ù. ±×µéÀÇ °áÈ¥Àº ¼Ò¼³ÀÇ
Áß½ÉÀûÀÎ ÁøºÎÇÑ °¡Ä¡µéÀ» »ó¡ÇÑ´Ù. |
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The essays in War and Peace, which begin in the second half of the book, satirize
all attempts to formulate general laws of history and reject the ill-considered
assumptions supporting all historical narratives. In Tolstoy's view, history,
like battle, is essentially the product of contingency, has no direction, and
fits no pattern. The causes of historical events are infinitely varied and
forever unknowable, and so historical writing, which claims to explain the past,
necessarily falsifies it. The shape of historical narratives reflects not the
actual course of events but the essentially literary criteria established by
earlier historical narratives.
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ÀüÀï°ú ÆòÈ¿¡ µé¾î ÀÖ´Â ¼öÇʵéÀº, Ã¥ÀÇ µÎ ¹øÂ° Á߹ݺο¡¼ ½ÃÀÛÇϴµ¥, ¿ª»ç¿¡ °üÇÑ ÀÏ¹Ý ¹ýÄ¢µéÀ» ¼¼¿ì·Á ÇÏ´Â ¸ðµç
½ÃµµµéÀ» dzÀÚÇϸç, ¸ðµç ¿ª»çÀû ¼¼úµéÀ» ÁöÁöÇÏ´Â ¹«ºÐº°ÇÑ ¾ïÃøµéÀ» °ÅºÎÇÑ´Ù. Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ °üÁ¡¿¡¼, ¿ª»ç´Â, ÀüÀïó·³, ±Ùº»ÀûÀ¸·Î ¿ì¿¬¼ºÀÇ
»ê¹°À̰í, ¾Æ¹«·± ¹æÇâµµ °¡Áö°í ÀÖÁö ¾ÊÀ¸¸ç, ¾Æ¹«·± Ʋ¿¡µµ µé¾î ¸ÂÁö ¾Ê´Â´Ù.¿ª»çÀû »ç°ÇµéÀÇ ¿øÀεéÀº ¹«ÇÑÈ÷ º¯ÇÏ¸ç ¿µ¿øÈ÷ ¾Ë ¼ö ¾ø´Ù, ±×·¡¼
¿ª»ç¿¡ °üÇÑ ¼¼úÀº, °ú°Å¸¦ ¼³¸íÇÑ´Ù°í ÁÖÀåÇÏÁö¸¸, ÇÊ¿¬ÀûÀ¸·Î ±×°ÍÀ» ¿Ö°îÇÏ´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ¿ª»çÀû ±â¼úµéÀÇ ÇüÅ´ »ç°ÇµéÀÇ »ç½ÇÀû °úÁ¤ÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó
ÀÌÀüÀÇ ¿ª»çÀû ¼¼úµé¿¡ ÀÇÇØ¼ È®¸³µÈ ±Ùº»ÀûÀ¸·Î ¹®ÇÐÀûÀÎ ±âÁصéÀ» ¹Ý¿µÇÑ´Ù. |
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According to Tolstoy's essays,
historians also make a number of other closely connected errors. They presume
that history is shaped by the plans and ideas of great men--whether generals or
political leaders or intellectuals like themselves--and that its direction is
determined at dramatic moments leading to major decisions. In fact, however,
history is made by the sum total of an infinite number of small decisions taken
by ordinary people, whose actions are too unremarkable to be documented. As
Tolstoy explains, to presume that grand events make history is like concluding
from a view of a distant region where only treetops are visible that the region
contains nothing but trees. Therefore Tolstoy's novel gives its readers
countless examples of small incidents that each exert a tiny influence--which is
one reason that War and Peace is so
long. Tolstoy's belief in the efficacy of the ordinary and the futility of
system-building set him in opposition to the thinkers of his day. It remains one
of the most controversial aspects of his philosophy. |
Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ ¼öÇʵ鿡 ÀÇÇϸé, ¿ª»ç°¡µéµµ ¿ª½Ã ¼ö¸¹Àº ´Ù¸¥ ±ä¹ÐÈ÷ ¿¬°áµÈ ¿À·ùµéÀ» ¹üÇÑ´Ù´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ±×µéÀº ¿ª»ç°¡ À§´ëÇÑ »ç¶÷µé -- À屺µéÀ̰ųª
Á¤Ä¡ ÁöµµÀÚµéÀ̰ųª ¶Ç´Â ±×µé°ú °°Àº Áö½ÄÀεé -- ÀÇ °èȹµé°ú »ç»óµé·Î¼ ¸ð¾çÀ» °¡Áö¸ç ±× ¹æÇâÀº ÁÖ¿ä °áÁ¤µé¿¡ À̸£´Â ±ØÀûÀÎ ¼ø°£µé¿¡¼
°áÁ¤µÈ´Ù°í ÀüÁ¦ÇÑ´Ù. ±×·¯³ª »ç½Ç»ó ¿ª»ç´Â Æò¹üÇÑ »ç¶÷µé¿¡ ÀÇÇØ, ºñ·Ï ±×µéÀÇ ÇൿµéÀÌ ¹®¼È µÇ±â¿¡´Â ³Ê¹«³ª Æò¹üÇÏÁö¸¸, ÃëÇØÁö´Â ¹«¼öÈ÷ ¸¹Àº
ÀÛÀº °áÁ¤µéÀÇ ÃѰ迡 ÀÇÇÏ¿© ¸¸µé¾î Áø´Ù. Å罺ÅäÀ̰¡ ¼³¸íÇϵíÀÌ, °Å´ëÇÑ »ç°ÇµéÀÌ ¿ª»ç¸¦ ¸¸µç´Ù´Â °ÍÀº ¿ÀÁ÷ ³ª¹«ÀÇ ²À´ë±âµé ¸¸ÀÌ º¸ÀÌ´Â ¸Õ
Áö¿ªÀÇ ½Ã°¢À¸·ÎºÎÅÍ ±× Áö¿ªÀÌ ¿À·ÎÁö ³ª¹«µé¸¸ Æ÷ÇÔÇÑ´Ù°í °á·ÐÀ» ³»¸®´Â °Í°ú °°´Ù. ±×·¯¹Ç·Î Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ ¼Ò¼³Àº ±× µ¶Àڵ鿡°Ô Á¦°¢±â Á¶±×¸¸
¿µÇâÀ» Çà»çÇÏ´Â Á¶±×¸¸ »ç°ÇµéÀÇ ¹«¼öÇÑ ¿¹µéÀ» ÁØ´Ù -- ¹Ù·Î ±×°ÍÀÌ ÀüÀï°ú ÆòȰ¡ ³Ê¹« ±æ´Ù´Â ÇѰ¡Áö ÀÌÀ¯ÀÌ´Ù. Æò¹üÇÑ °ÍÀÇ
È¿¿ë¼º°ú Á¦µµ ±¸ÃàÀÇ ¹«¿ë¼º¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ ½Å³äÀº ±×ÀÇ ½Ã´ëÀÇ »ç»ó°¡µé°ú ±×¸¦ ´ëÄ¡ÇÏ°Ô ¸¸µé¾ú´Ù. ±×°ÍÀº ±×ÀÇ Ã¶ÇÐÀÇ °¡Àå ³í¶õÀÌ µÇ´Â Ãø¸éµé
ÁßÀÇ Çϳª·Î ³²¾Æ ÀÖ´Ù. |
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¡¡ |
¡¡ |
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In Anna
Karenina (1875-77) Tolstoy applied these ideas to family life. The novel's
first sentence, which indicates its concern with the domestic, is perhaps
Tolstoy's most famous: "All happy families resemble each other; each
unhappy family is unhappy in its own way." Anna Karenina interweaves the stories of three families, the
Oblonskys, the Karenins, and the Levins. |
¾È³ª Ä«·¹´Ï³ª(1875-77)¿¡¼ Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ÀÌ¿Í °°Àº »ç»óµéÀ» °¡Á·ÀÇ »î¿¡
Àû¿ëÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¼Ò¼³ÀÇ Ã¹ ¹øÂ° ¹®ÀåÀº, °¡Á¤ÀûÀÎ °ü½ÉÀ» °¡¸®Å°´Â °ÍÀ¸·Î, ¾Æ¸¶µµ Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ °¡Àå À¯¸íÇÑ: "¸ðµç ÇູÇÑ °¡Á¤µéÀº ¼·Î ´à¾Æ ÀÖ´Ù;
Á¦°¢±â ºÒÇàÇÑ °¡Á¤Àº ±× ³ª¸§´ë·Î ºÒÇàÇÏ´Ù"ÀÏ °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ¾È³ª Ä«·¹´Ï³ª´Â ¼¼ °¡Á¤ - ¿Àºí·Ð½ºÅ°, Ä«·¹´Ñ ¹× ·¹ºó - ÀÇ À̾߱âµéÀ» ¿«¾î °£´Ù.
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The novel begins at the Oblonskys, where
the long-suffering wife Dolly has discovered the infidelity of her genial and
sybaritic husband Stiva. In her kindness, care for her family, and concern for
everyday life, Dolly stands as the novel's moral compass. By contrast, Stiva,
though never wishing ill, wastes resources, neglects his family, and regards
pleasure as the purpose of life. The figure of Stiva is perhaps designed to
suggest that evil, no less than good, ultimately derives from the small moral
choices human beings make moment by moment. |
¼Ò¼³Àº ¿Àºí·Ð½ºÅ°ÀÇ °¡Á¤¿¡¼ ½ÃÀ۵Ǵµ¥, ±×°÷¿¡¼± ÂüÀ»¼º ¸¹Àº µ¹¸®°¡ ±×³àÀÇ ´ÙÁ¤ÇÏ¸ç ¹æÅÁÇÑ ³²Æí ½ºÆ¼¹ÙÀÇ ºÎÁ¤À» ¹ß°ßÇÏ°Ô µÈ´Ù. ±×³àÀÇ
Ä£ÀýÇÔ, ±×³àÀÇ °¡Á·¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¾ÖÁ¤ ±×¸®°í ÀÏ»ó »ýȰ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ °ü½É ¾È¿¡¼, µ¹¸®´Â ¼Ò¼³ ¼ÓÀÇ µµ´öÀû ³ªÄ§¹ÝÀ¸·Î ¼°Ô µÈ´Ù. ´ëÁ¶ÀûÀ¸·Î, ½ºÆ¼¹Ù´Â,
ºñ·Ï °áÄÚ ¾ÇÀ» ¹Ù¶óÁø ¾ÊÁö¸¸, Àç»êÀ» ³¶ºñÇϰí, ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ °¡Á·À» µîÇѽÃÇϸç, ±×¸®°í Äè¶ôÀ» »îÀÇ ¸ñÀûÀ¸·Î ¿©±ä´Ù. ½ºÆ¼¹Ù°¡ »ó¡ÇÏ´Â °ÍÀº ¾Æ¸¶µµ
¾ÇÀº, ¼±°ú ¸¶Âù°¡Áö·Î, ±Ã±ØÀûÀ¸·Î Àΰ£À̶ó´Â Á¸ÀçµéÀÌ ¸Å ¼ø°£¸¶´Ù ³»¸®´Â Á¶±×¸¸ µµ´öÀû ¼±Åõé·ÎºÎÅÍ ºñ·ÔµÈ´Ù´Â °ÍÀ» ¾Ï½ÃÇϵµ·Ï ±¸»óµÈ °ÍÀÌ´Ù. |
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Stiva's sister Anna begins the novel as
the faithful wife of the stiff, unromantic, but otherwise decent government
minister Aleksey Karenin and the mother of a young boy, Seryozha. But Anna, who
imagines herself the heroine of a romantic novel, allows herself to fall in love
with an officer, Aleksey Vronsky. Schooling herself to see only the worst in her
husband, she eventually leaves him and her son to live with Vronsky. Throughout
the novel, Tolstoy indicates that the romantic idea of love, which most people
identify with love itself, is entirely incompatible with the superior kind of
love, the intimate love of good families. As the novel progresses, Anna, who
suffers pangs of conscience for abandoning her husband and child, develops a
habit of lying to herself until she reaches a state of near madness and total
separation from reality. She at last commits suicide by throwing herself under a
train. The realization that she may have been thinking about life incorrectly
comes to her only when she is lying on the track, and it is too late to save
herself. |
½ºÆ¼¹ÙÀÇ ´©ÀÌÀÎ ¾È³ª´Â »»»»Çϰí, Çö½ÇÀûÀÌÁö¸¸, ´Ù¸¥ ¸é¿¡¼± Á¤ºÎ °¢·áÀÎ ¾Ë·º¼¼ÀÌ Ä«·¹´ÑÀÇ ¾Æ³»·Î ±×¸®°í ¾î¸° ¼Ò³â, ¼¼¸®¿ÀÀÚÀÇ ¾î¸Ó´Ï·Î ¼Ò¼³À»
½ÃÀÛÇÑ´Ù. ±×·¯³ª ¾È³ª´Â, ÀÚ½ÅÀ» ³¶¸¸Àû ¼Ò¼³ÀÇ ÁÖÀΰøÀ¸·Î »ó»óÇÏ¿©¼, ½º½º·Î Àå±³ÀÎ ¾Ë·º¼¼ÀÌ ºê·Ð½ºÅ°¿Í »ç¶û¿¡ ºüÁöµµ·Ï ÇÑ´Ù. ±×³àÀÇ
³²Æí¿¡°Ô¼ ¿ÀÁ÷ ÃÖ¾Ç ¸¸À» º¸µµ·Ï ÈÆ·ÃÇϰí¼, ±×³à´Â °á±¹ ºê·Ð½ºÅ°¿Í »ì±â À§ÇØ ±×¿Í ±×³àÀÇ ¾ÆµéÀ» ¶°³´Ù. ¼Ò¼³ Àüü¸¦ ÅëÇÏ¿©, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â
»ç¶û¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ³¶¸¸Àû »ý°¢Àº, ´ëºÎºÐÀÇ »ç¶÷µéÀº À̰ÍÀ» »ç¶û ±× ÀÚüÀÎ °ÍÀ¸·Î µ¿ÀϽÃÇϴµ¥, ¿ì¿ùÇÑ Á¾·ùÀÇ »ç¶û, Áï, ÈǸ¢ÇÑ °¡Á¤µéÀÇ Æí¾ÈÇÑ
»ç¶û°ú ÀüÀûÀ¸·Î ¾ç¸³ÇÒ ¼ö ¾øÀ½À» °¡¸®Å°°í ÀÖ´Ù. ¼Ò¼³ÀÌ ÁøÇàµÇ¸é¼, ¾È³ª´Â, ±×³àÀÇ ³²Æí°ú ÀÚ½ÄÀ» ¹ö¸° µ¥ ´ëÇÑ ¾ç½ÉÀÇ °íÅëÀ» °ÞÀ¸¸ç, °ÅÀÇ
¹ÌÄ£ »óÅ¿¡ ±×¸®°í Çö½Ç°úÀÇ ¿ÏÀüÇÑ °Ý¸®¿¡ À̸¦ ¶§±îÁö ½º½º·Î¸¦ ¼ÓÀÌ´Â ½À°üÀ» ¹ßÀü½ÃŲ´Ù. ±×³à´Â ¸¶Ä§³» ±âÂ÷ ¹ØÀ¸·Î ¶Ù¾îµé¸é¼ ÀÚ»ìÀ» Çϰí
¸¸´Ù. ±×³à°¡ »î¿¡ ´ëÇØ Ʋ¸®°Ô »ý°¢Çϰí ÀÖ¾úÀ» ¼öµµ ÀÖ´Ù´Â ÀÚ°¢Àº ¿ÀÁ÷ ±×³à°¡ ö±æ À§¿¡ ´©¿ö ÀÖÀ» ¶§ ±×³à¿¡°Ô ´Ù°¡¿À°í, ±×¸®°í ±×°ÍÀº
½º½º·Î¸¦ ±¸Çϱ⿡´Â ³Ê¹« ´ÊÀº °ÍÀ̾ú´Ù. |
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The third story concerns Dolly's sister
Kitty, who first imagines she loves Vronsky but then recognizes that real love
is the intimate feeling she has for her family's old friend, Konstantin Levin.
Their story focuses on courtship, marriage, and the ordinary incidents of family
life, which, in spite of many difficulties, shape real happiness and a
meaningful existence. Throughout the novel, Levin is tormented by philosophical
questions about the meaning of life in the face of death. Although these
questions are never answered, they vanish when Levin begins to live correctly by
devoting himself to his family and to daily work. Like his creator Tolstoy,
Levin regards the systems of intellectuals as spurious and as incapable of
embracing life's complexity. |
¼¼ ¹øÂ°ÀÇ À̾߱â´Â µ¹¸®ÀÇ ´©ÀÌÀΠŰƼ¿Í °ü·ÃÇÑ °ÍÀ¸·Î, ±×³à´Â óÀ½¿¡ ÀÚ½ÅÀÌ ºê·Ð½ºÅ°¸¦ »ç¶ûÇÑ´Ù°í »ó»óÇÏÁö¸¸ ±×¶§ ÁøÁ¤ÇÑ »ç¶ûÀº ±×³àÀÇ °¡Á¤ÀÇ
¿À·£ Ä£±¸ÀÎ, ÄܽºÅºÆ¾ ·¹ºó¿¡ ´ëÇØ °¡Áø Æí¾ÈÇÑ ´À³¦À̾úÀ½À» ±ú´Ý´Â´Ù. ±×µéÀÇ À̾߱â´Â ±¸¾Ö, °áÈ¥, ±×¸®°í °¡Á¤ÀÇ »îÀÇ Æò¹üÇÑ »ç°Çµé¿¡ ÃÊÁ¡À»
¸ÂÃ߸ç, ±×µéÀº, ¸¹Àº ¾î·Á¿òµé¿¡µµ ºÒ±¸Çϰí, ÁøÁ¤ÇÑ Çູ°ú ÀÇ¹Ì ÀÖ´Â Á¸À縦 ´Ùµë¾î ³ª°£´Ù. ¼Ò¼³ Àüü¸¦ ÅëÇÏ¿©, ·¹ºóÀº Á×À½¿¡ Á÷¸éÇÏ´Â »îÀÇ
Àǹ̿¡ ´ëÇÑ Ã¶ÇÐÀû Àǹ®µé¿¡ ÀÇÇØ¼ °íÅë ¹Þ´Â´Ù. ºñ·Ï ÀÌ·± Àǹ®µéÀº °áÄÚ ´äÀ» ¾üÁö ¸øÇÏÁö¸¸, ±×°ÍµéÀº, ·¹ºóÀÌ ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ °¡Á¤°ú ÀÏ»óÀÇ ÀÏ¿¡
Àü³äÇÏ¸é¼ ¿Ã¹Ù¸£°Ô »ì±â ½ÃÀÛÇÒ ¶§, »ç¶óÁø´Ù. ±×¸¦ âÁ¶ÇÑ Å罺ÅäÀÌó·³, ·¹ºóÀº Áö½ÄÀεéÀÇ Ã¼°èµéÀ» À§¼±ÀÌ¸ç »îÀÇ º¹ÀâÇÔÀ» ²¸¾ÈÀ» ¼ö ¾ø´Ù°í
¿©±ä´Ù. |
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Both War
and Peace and Anna Karenina
advance the idea that ethics can never be a
matter of timeless rules applied to particular situations. Rather, ethics
depends on a sensitivity, developed over a lifetime, to particular people and
specific situations. Tolstoy's preference for particularities over abstractions
is often described as the hallmark of his thought. |
ÀüÀï°ú ÆòÈ ±×¸®°í ¾È³ª Ä«·¹´Ï³ª´Â °øÈ÷ À±¸®ÇÐÀº ƯÁ¤ÇÑ »óȲµé¿¡ Àû¿ëµÇ´Â ½Ã°£À» ÃÊ¿ùÇÑ ¿øÄ¢µéÀÇ ¹®Á¦°¡ µÉ ¼ö ¾ø´Ù´Â
»ç»óÀ» Àü°³ÇÑ´Ù. ¿ÀÈ÷·Á, À±¸®ÇÐÀº °¨¼ö¼º¿¡ ÀÇÁ¸Çϸç, Æò»ýÀ» ÅëÇÏ¿©, ƯÁ¤ÇÑ »ç¶÷µé¿¡°Ô·Î ±×¸®°í ƯÁ¤ÇÑ »óȲµé·Î ¹ßÀüµÈ´Ù. Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ Ã߻󼺵鿡
´ëÇÑ Æ¯¼ö¼ºÀÇ ¼±È£´Â Á¾Á¾ ±×ÀÇ »ç»óÀÇ Æ¯¼ºÀ¸·Î ¹¦»çµÈ´Ù. |
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¡¡ |
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5 °³Á¾°ú Á¾±³Àû ½Å³äµé
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Upon completing Anna Karenina, Tolstoy fell into a profound state of existential
despair, which he describes in his Ispoved
(1884; My Confession). All activity
seemed utterly pointless in the face of death, and Tolstoy, impressed by the
faith of the common people, turned to religion. Drawn at first to the Russian
Orthodox church into which he had been born, he rapidly decided that it, and all
other Christian churches, were corrupt institutions that had thoroughly
falsified true Christianity. Having discovered what he believed to be Christ's
message and having overcome his paralyzing fear of death, Tolstoy devoted the
rest of his life to developing and propagating his new faith. He was
excommunicated from the Russian Orthodox church in 1901. |
¾È³ª Ä«·¹´Ï³ª¸¦ ¿Ï¼ºÇÏÀÚ¸¶ÀÚ, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ±íÀº Á¸ÀçÀû Àý¸Á°¨¿¡ ºüÁö¸ç, ÀÌ¿¡ ´ëÇØ ±×´Â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ Ispoved (1884; ³ªÀÇ °í¹é)¿¡¼ ¹¦»çÇϰí ÀÖ´Ù. Á×À½À» ¸ÂÀÌÇÒ ¶§¿¡
¸ðµç Ȱµ¿Àº öÀúÈ÷ ÀÇ¹Ì ¾ø´Â °Íó·³ º¸¿´´Ù, ±×¸®°í Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â, º¸Åë »ç¶÷µéÀÇ ½Å¾Ó¿¡ °¨¸íÀ» ¹Þ°í¼, Á¾±³¿¡ ±ÍÀÇÇÏ¿´´Ù. óÀ½¿£ ±×°¡ ž
¶§ºÎÅÍ °¡Á³´ø ·¯½Ã¾Æ Á¤±³¿¡ ¸ôµÎÇÏ¿´À¸³ª, ±×´Â ½Å¼ÓÈ÷, ±×°Í°ú ¸ðµç ´Ù¸¥ ±×¸®½ºµµ±³ ±³È¸µéÀÌ, ÁøÁ¤ÇÑ ±×¸®½ºµµ±³¸¦ ¼Ó¼ÓµéÀÌ ¿Ö°îÇÑ ºÎÆÐÇÑ
´ÜüµéÀ̶ó°í °á·ÐÀ» ³»·È´Ù. ±×°¡ ¹ÏÀº °ÍÀÌ ±×¸®½ºµµÀÇ ¸Þ½ÃÁöÀÓÀ» ¹ß°ßÇÏ°í¼ ±×¸®°í Á×À½¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¹«±â·ÂÇÑ µÎ·Á¿òÀ» ±Øº¹ÇÑ µÚ¿¡, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â
ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ »îÀÇ ³ª¸ÓÁö¸¦ ±×ÀÇ »õ·Î¿î ½Å¾ÓÀ» ¹ßÀü½Ã۸ç ÀüÆÄÇϴµ¥ Çå½ÅÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×´Â 1901³â ·¯½Ã¾Æ Á¤±³È¸·ÎºÎÅÍ ÆÄ¹® ´çÇÏ¿´´Ù. |
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In the early 1880s he wrote three
closely related works, Issledovaniye
dogmaticheskogo bogosloviya (written 1880;
An Examination of Dogmatic Theology), Soyedineniye i perevod chetyrokh yevangeliy (written 1881;
Union
and Translation of the Four Gospels), and V
chyom moya vera? (written 1884;
What I
Believe); he later added Tsarstvo
bozhiye vnutri vas (1893;
The Kingdom
of God Is Within You) and many other essays and tracts. In brief, Tolstoy
rejected all the sacraments, all miracles, the Holy Trinity, the immortality of
the soul, and many other tenets of traditional religion, all of which he
regarded as obfuscations of the true Christian message contained, especially, in
the Sermon on the Mount. He rejected the Old Testament and much of the New,
which is why, having studied Greek, he composed his own "corrected"
version of the Gospels. For Tolstoy, "the man Jesus," as he called
him, was not the son of God but only a wise man who had arrived at a true
account of life. Tolstoy's rejection of religious ritual contrasts markedly with
his attitude in Anna Karenina, where
religion is viewed as a matter not of dogma but of traditional forms of daily
life. |
1880³â´ë Ãʱ⿡ ±×´Â ¼¼ÆíÀÇ ±ä¹ÐÈ÷ ¿¬°üµÈ ÀÛǰµé, Issledovaniye
dogmaticheskogo bogosloviya (1880³â¿¡ ÁýÇÊ; ±³¸®Àû ½ÅÇÐÀÇ ¿¬±¸), Soyedineniye i perevod chetyrokh yevangeliy (1881³â¿¡
ÁýÇÊ; 4 º¹À½¼ÀÇ ÇÕÀϰú ÇØ¼®), ¹× V
chyom moya vera? ( 1884³â¿¡ ÁýÇÊ; ³ª´Â ¹«¾ùÀ» ¹Ï´Â°¡)À»
ÁýÇÊÇÏ¿´´Ù; ±×´Â ÈÄÀÏ Tsarstvo
bozhiye vnutri vas (1893; Çϳª´ÔÀÇ ³ª¶ó´Â ³ÊÈñ ¾È¿¡ ÀÖ´À´Ï¶ó)
¹× ¸¹Àº ´Ù¸¥ ³í¹®µé ¹× ¼Ò ³í¹®µéÀ» ÁýÇÊÇÏ¿´´Ù. °£´ÜÈ÷ ¸»Çϸé, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ¸ðµç ¼º·Êµé, ¸ðµç ±âÀûµé, »ïÀ§ ÀÏü, ¿µÈ¥ ºÒ¸ê ¹× ¸¹Àº ´Ù¸¥
ÀüÅëÀû Á¾±³ÀÇ °·ÉµéÀ» °ÅºÎÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, ±×´Â ±× ¸ðµç °ÍµéÀ», Ưº°È÷, »ê»ó ¼³±³¿¡ ´ã°ÜÀÖ´Â ±×¸®½ºµµÀÇ ÂüµÈ ¸Þ½ÃÁö¸¦ È帮°Ô ÇÏ´Â °ÍµéÀ̶ó°í
¿©°å´Ù. ±×´Â ±¸¾à¼º¼ ¹× ¸¹Àº ºÎºÐÀÇ ½Å¾à¼º¼¸¦ °ÅºÎÇÏ¿´´Âµ¥, ±×°ÍÀÌ ¹Ù·Î ±×°¡ ±×¸®½º¾î¸¦ ¿¬±¸ÇÑ µÚ¿¡ ÀÚ±â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ "±³Á¤µÈ" º¹À½¼ ¹öÀüÀ»
âÀÛÇÑ ÀÌÀ¯ÀÌ´Ù. Å罺ÅäÀÌ¿¡°Ô ÀÖ¾î¼ ±×°¡ ÀÏÄ´ ¹Ù, "¿¹¼ö¶ó´Â »ç¶÷"Àº Çϳª´ÔÀÇ ¾ÆµéÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï¸ç ¿ÀÁ÷ »î¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Áø½ÇÇÑ ¼³¸í¿¡ µµ´ÞÇÑ Çö¸íÇÑ
»ç¶÷À̾ú´Ù. Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ Á¾±³Àû ÀÇ·ÊÀÇ °ÅºÎ´Â ¾È³ª Ä«·¹´Ï³ª¿¡¼ÀÇ ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ °æÇâ°ú µÎµå·¯Áö°Ô ´ëÁ¶µÇ´Âµ¥, ±×°÷¿¡¼ Á¾±³´Â ±³¸®ÀÇ
¹®Á¦·Î¼°¡ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó ÀÏ»óÀû »îÀÇ ÀüÅëÀûÀÎ Çüŵé·Î¼ º¸¿©Áö°í ÀÖ´Ù. |
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Stated positively, the Christianity of
Tolstoy's last decades stressed five tenets: be not angry, do not lust, do not
take oaths, do not resist evil, and love your enemies.
Nonresistance to evil,
the doctrine that inspired Gandhi, meant not that evil must be accepted but only
that it cannot be fought with evil means, especially violence. Thus Tolstoy
became a
pacifist. Because governments rely on the threat of violence to enforce
their laws, Tolstoy also became a kind of anarchist.
He enjoined his followers not only to refuse military service but also to
abstain from voting or from having recourse to the courts. He therefore had to
go through considerable inner conflict when it came time to make his will or to
use royalties secured by copyright even for good works. In general, it may be
said that Tolstoy was well aware that he did not succeed in living according to
his teachings.
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±àÁ¤ÀûÀ¸·Î ¸»ÇÏÀÚ¸é, Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ °ú°Å ¼ö½Ê³â °£ÀÇ ±×¸®½ºµµ±³´Â ´Ù¼¸ °¡Áö ½ÅÁ¶¸¦ °Á¶ÇÏ¿´´Ù: ȸ¦ ³»Áö ¸»¶ó, Á¤¿åÀ» °®Áö ¸»¶ó, ¸Í¼¼¸¦ ÇÏÁö
¸»¶ó, ¾Ç¿¡ ÀúÇ×ÇÏÁö ¸»¶ó, ±×¸®°í ³ÊÀÇ ¿ø¼ö¸¦ »ç¶ûÇ϶ó. ¾Ç¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¹«ÀúÇ×Àº, °£µð¿¡°Ô ¿µ°¨ ÁØ ±³¸®·Î¼, ¾ÇÀÌ ¹Ýµå½Ã ¼ö¿ëµÇ¾î¾ß ÇÑ´Ù´Â °ÍÀ»
ÀǹÌÇÏÁö ¾ÊÀ» »Ó¸¸ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó ¾ÇÇÑ ¹æ¹ý, ƯÈ÷ Æø·ÂÀ¸·Î, ½Î¿ï ¼ö ¾ø´Ù´Â °ÍÀ» ÀǹÌÇß´Ù. ±×¸®ÇÏ¿© Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ÆòÈÁÖÀÇÀÚ°¡ µÇ¾ú´Ù. Á¤ºÎ°¡ ±×µéÀÇ
¹ý·üÀ» ÁýÇàÇϱâ À§ÇÏ¿© Æø·ÂÀÇ À§Çù¿¡ ÀÇÁ¸Çϱ⠶§¹®¿¡, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ÀÏÁ¾ÀÇ ¹«Á¤ºÎÁÖÀÇÀÚ°¡ µÇ¾ú´Ù. ±×´Â ±×ÀÇ ÃßÁ¾Àڵ鿡°Ô º´¿ªÀ» °ÅºÎÇÒ »Ó¸¸
¾Æ´Ï¶ó ÅõÇ¥³ª ¹ýÁ¤¿¡ È£¼ÒÇÔÀ» »ï°¡¶ó°í ±Ç°íÇß´Ù. ±×´Â ±×·¯¹Ç·Î ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ À¯¾ðÀ» ÀÛ¼ºÇϰųª ½ÉÁö¾î À¯ÀÍÇÑ »ç¾÷µé¿¡µµ ÀúÀ۱ǿ¡ ÀÇÇÏ¿© È®º¸µÈ
·Î¿Æ¼µéÀ» »ç¿ëÇÒ ¶§¿¡ »ó´çÇÑ ³»ÀûÀÎ °¥µîÀ» °Þ¾î¾ß¸¸ Çß´Ù. ÀϹÝÀûÀ¸·Î, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ °¡¸£Ä§¿¡ µû¶ó¼ »ç´Â °Í¿¡ ¼º°øÇÏÁö ¸øÇÏ¿´À½À» Àß
¾Ë°í ÀÖ¾ú´Ù°í ¸»Çصµ µÉ °ÍÀÌ´Ù. |
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Tolstoy based the prescription against
oaths (including promises) on an idea adapted from his early work: the
impossibility of knowing the future and therefore the danger of binding oneself
in advance. The commandment against lust eventually led him to propose (in his
afterword to Kreytserova sonata [1891;
The Kreutzer Sonata]), a dark novella
about a man who murders his wife) total abstinence as an ideal. His wife,
already concerned about their strained relations, objected. In defending his
most extreme ideas, Tolstoy compared Christianity to a lamp that is not
stationary but is carried along by human beings; it lights up ever new moral
realms and reveals ever higher ideals as mankind progresses spiritually. |
Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â (¾à¼ÓµéÀ» Æ÷ÇÔÇÏ¿©) ¸Í¼¼µé¿¡ ¹Ý´ëÇÏ´Â ¸í·ÉÀ» ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ Ãʱâ ÀÛǰÀ¸·ÎºÎÅÍ °¢»öÇÑ »ç»ó¿¡ Åä´ë¸¦ µÎ°í ÀÖ¾ú´Ù: ¹Ì·¡¸¦ ¾Æ´Â °ÍÀÇ ºÒ°¡´É¼º
±×·¯¹Ç·Î »çÀü¿¡ ½º½º·Î¸¦ ±¸¼ÓÇÏ´Â À§ÇèÀÌ ±×°ÍÀ̾ú´Ù. Á¤¿å¿¡ ¹Ý´ëÇÏ´Â °è¸íÀº °á±¹ ±×·Î ÇÏ¿©±Ý ¿ÏÀüÇÑ ±Ý¿åÀ» ÀÌ»óÀ¸·Î (ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ¾Æ³»¸¦ »ìÇØÇÏ´Â
³²ÀÚ¿¡ °üÇÑ ¾îµÎ¿î Á߯í¼Ò¼³ÀÎ ±×ÀÇ Kreytserova sonata [1891; Å©·ÎÀÌü ¼Ò³ªÅ¸]¿¡ ´ëÇÑ
Èı⿡¼ )Á¦¾ÈÇϵµ·Ï À̲ø¾ú´Ù. ±×ÀÇ ¾Æ³»´Â, ÀÌ¹Ì ±×µéÀÇ ¾ïÁö½º·± °ü°èµé¿¡ °ÆÁ¤Çϸé¼, °ÅºÎÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×ÀÇ °¡Àå ±Ø´ÜÀûÀÎ »ç»óµéÀ»
¼öÈ£Çϱâ À§ÇÏ¿©, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ±×¸®½ºµµ±³¸¦ Á¤ÁöÇØÀÖ´Â °ÍÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó Àΰ£µéÀÌ Áö´Ï°Ô µÇ´Â µîºÒ°ú ºñÀ¯ÇÏ¿´´Ù; ±×°ÍÀº Àηù°¡ ¿µÀûÀ¸·Î Áøº¸ÇÔ¿¡ µû¶ó¼
¾ðÁ¦³ª »õ·Î¿î µµ´öÀû ¿µ¿ªµéÀ» ¹àÈ÷¸ç ¾ðÁ¦³ª ´õ ³ôÀº ÀÌ»óµéÀ» µå·¯³½´Ù. |
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¡¡ |
¡¡ |
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6. 1880³â ÈÄÀÇ ¼Ò¼³¹®ÇÐ
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Tolstoy's fiction after Anna
Karenina may be divided into two groups. He wrote a number of moral tales
for common people, including "Gde lyubov, tam i bog" (written 1885;
"Where Love Is, God Is"), "Chem lyudi zhivy" (written 1882;
"What People Live By"), and "Mnogo li cheloveku zemli
nuzhno" (written 1885; "How Much Land Does a Man Need"), a story
that the Irish novelist James Joyce rather extravagantly praised as "the
greatest story that the literature of the world knows." For educated
people, Tolstoy wrote fiction that was both realistic and highly didactic. Some
of these works succeed brilliantly, especially Smert
Ivana Ilicha (written 1886; The
Death of Ivan Ilyich), a novella describing a man's gradual realization that
he is dying and that his life has been wasted on trivialities. Otets
Sergy (written 1898; Father Sergius),
which may be taken as Tolstoy's self-critique, tells the story of a proud man
who wants to become a saint but discovers that
sainthood cannot be consciously sought. Regarded as a great holy man, Sergius
comes to realize that his reputation is groundless; warned by a dream, he
escapes incognito to seek out a simple and decent woman whom he had known as a
child. At last he learns that not he but she is the saint, that sainthood cannot
be achieved by imitating a model, and that true saints are ordinary people
unaware of their own prosaic goodness. This story therefore seems to criticize
the ideas Tolstoy espoused after his conversion from the perspective of his
earlier great novels. |
¾È³ª Ä«·¹´Ï³ª ÀÌÈÄÀÇ Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ ¼Ò¼³¹®ÇÐÀº µÎ°¡Áö ±×·ìÀ¸·Î ³ª´©¾îÁú ¼ö ÀÖÀ» °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ±×´Â º¸Åë »ç¶÷µéÀ» À§ÇØ ¸¹Àº µµ´öÀû
À̾߱âµéÀ» ½è´Âµ¥, "Gde lyubov, tam i bog" (1885³â ±â·Ï;
"»ç¶ûÀÌ ÀÖ´Â °÷¿¡ Çϳª´ÔÀÌ ÀÖ´Ù"), "Chem lyudi zhivy" (1882³â ±â·Ï;
"»ç¶÷Àº ¹«¾ùÀ¸·Î »ç´Â°¡"), ±×¸®°í ¾ÆÀÏ·£µåÀÇ ¼Ò¼³°¡ Á¦ÀÓ½º Á¶À̽º°¡ "¼¼°èÀÇ ¹®ÇÐÀÌ ¾Æ´Â ÇÑ °¡Àå ÈǸ¢ÇÑ À̾߱â"¶ó°í ´Ù¼Ò
Áö³ªÄ¡°Ô ĪÂùÇÏ¿´´ø, "Mnogo li cheloveku zemli
nuzhno" (1885³â ±â·Ï; "»ç¶÷Àº ¾ó¸¶³ª ¸¹Àº ÅäÁö°¡ ÇÊ¿äÇѰ¡") µîÀÌ´Ù. ±³À°¹ÞÀº »ç¶÷µéÀ» À§ÇÏ¿©, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â Çö½ÇÁÖÀÇÀûÀÏ »Ó¸¸
¾Æ´Ï¶ó ¸Å¿ì ±³ÈÆÀûÀÎ ¼Ò¼³À» ½è´Ù. À̵é ÀÛǰµé Áß ÀϺδ ¸ÚÁö°Ô ¼º°øÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, ƯÈ÷ Smert
Ivana Ilicha (1886³â ±â·Ï; ÀÌ¹Ý Àϸ®Ä¡ÀÇ Á×À½)´Â ÀÚ½ÅÀÌ Á׾°í ÀÖÀ¸¸ç ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ »îÀÌ »ç¼ÒÇÑ
°Íµé¿¡ ³¶ºñµÇ¾úÀ½À» Á¡Â÷ ±ú´Ý´Â ¾î¶² »ç¶÷À» ¹¦»çÇÏ´Â ÁßÆí ¼Ò¼³ÀÌ´Ù. Otets
Sergy (1898¿¡ ÀÛ¼º; ½ÅºÎ ¼¼¸£Áö¿À½º)´Â, Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ ÀÚ¾Æ ºñÆÇÀ¸·Î ¿©°ÜÁú ¼ö ÀÖ´Â °ÍÀ¸·Î, ¼ºÀÚ°¡ µÇ±â¸¦
¿øÇÏÁö¸¸ ¼ºÀÚ´Â ÀǽÄÀûÀ¸·Î Ãß±¸ÇÒ ¼ö ¾ø´Ù´Â °ÍÀ» ¹ß°ßÇÏ´Â ¿À¸¸ÇÑ »ç¶÷ÀÇ À̾߱⸦ ¸»ÇØ ÁØ´Ù. °Å´ëÇÑ ¼ºÀÎÀ¸·Î ¿©°ÜÁöÁö¸¸, ¼¼¸£Áö¿À½º´Â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ
¸í¼ºÀÌ ±Ù°Å ¾øÀ½À» ±ú´Ý°Ô µÈ´Ù; ²ÞÀ¸·Î °æ°í¸¦ ¹Þ°í¼, ±×°¡ ¾î¸± ¶§ºÎÅÍ ¾Ë¾Æ ¿Ô´ø ¼Ò¹ÚÇÏ¸ç ±âǰ ÀÖ´Â ¿©ÀÚ¸¦ ã±â À§ÇØ ¸ô·¡ Å»ÃâÇÑ´Ù.
¸¶Ä§³» ±×´Â ±×°¡ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó ±×³à°¡ ¼ºÀÚÀ̸ç, ÂüµÈ ¼ºÀÚ´Â ÀÚ±â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ÀÏ»óÀûÀÎ ¼±ÇÔÀ» ÀνÄÇÏÁö ¸øÇÏ´Â º¸Åë »ç¶÷µéÀÓÀ» ±ú´Ý°Ô µÈ´Ù. ÀÌ À̾߱â´Â
±×·¯¹Ç·Î Å罺ÅäÀ̰¡ ±×ÀÇ ÃʱâÀÇ À§´ëÇÑ ¼Ò¼³µéÀÇ ½Ã°¢À¸·ÎºÎÅÍ ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ °³Á¾ ÈÄ¿¡ ¿ËÈ£ÇÏ´ø »ç»óµéÀ» ºñÆÇÇÏ´Â °Íó·³ º¸ÀδÙ. |
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In 1899 Tolstoy published his third long
novel, Voskreseniye (Resurrection);
he used the royalties to pay for the transportation of a persecuted religious
sect, the Dukhobors, to Canada. The novel's hero, the idle aristocrat Dmitry
Nekhlyudov, finds himself on a jury where he recognizes the defendant, the
prostitute Katyusha Maslova, as a woman whom he once had seduced, thus
precipitating her life of crime. After she is condemned to imprisonment in
Siberia, he decides to follow her and, if she will agree, to marry her. In the
novel's most remarkable exchange, she reproaches him for his hypocrisy: once you
got your pleasure from me, and now you want to get your salvation from me, she
tells him. She refuses to marry him, but, as the novel ends, Nekhlyudov achieves
spiritual awakening when he at last understands Tolstoyan truths, especially the
futility of judging others. The novel's most celebrated sections satirize the
church and the justice system, but the work is generally regarded as markedly
inferior to War and Peace and Anna Karenina. |
1899³â Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ±×ÀÇ ¼¼ ¹øÂ°·Î ±ä ¼Ò¼³ÀÎ, Voskreseniye (ºÎȰ)À» ÃâÆÇÇÏ¿´´Ù; ±×´Â ·Î¿Æ¼¸¦ ¹ÚÇØ
¹Þ´ø Á¾±³Àû ºÐÆÄÀÎ, µÎÈ£º¸¸£ÀÇ Ä³³ª´Ù·ÎÀÇ ÀÌÁÖ¸¦ ÁöºÒÇϱâ À§ÇØ »ç¿ëÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¼Ò¼³ÀÇ ÁÖÀΰø,
³ªÅÂÇÑ ±ÍÁ·ÀÎ µå¹ÌÆ®¸® ³×Ŭ·çµµÇÁ·Î´Â, ¹è½É¿øÀ¸·Î ³ª°¬´Ù°¡ ÇÇ°í¸¦ ¾Ë¾Æº¸´Âµ¥, â³àÀÎ Ä«Ãß»ç ¸¶½½·Î¹Ù¸¦ ÇÑ ¿©¼ºÀ¸·Î¼ ±×°¡ °ú°Å¿¡ À¯È¤ÇÑ ÀûÀÌ
ÀÖ¾úÀ¸¸ç, ±×¸®ÇÏ¿© ±×³à¸¦ ¹üÁËÀû »îÀ¸·Î ³»¸ó °ÍÀ̾ú´Ù. ±×³à°¡ ½Ãº£¸®¾Æ À¯ÇüÀ» ¼±°í ¹ÞÀº ÈÄ¿¡, ±×´Â ±×³à¸¦ µû¶ó°¡±â·Î ±×¸®°í, ¸¸ÀÏ ±×³à°¡
µ¿ÀÇÇÑ´Ù¸é, ±×³à¿Í °áÈ¥Çϱâ·Î °á½ÉÇÑ´Ù. ¼Ò¼³ÀÇ °¡Àå ÁÖ¸ñÇÒ ¸¸ÇÑ ´ëÈ¿¡¼, ±×³à´Â ±×ÀÇ À§¼±¿¡ ´ëÇØ ºñ³ÇÑ´Ù: °ú°Å¿¡ ´ç½ÅÀº ³ª·ÎºÎÅÍ Äè¶ôÀ»
ã¾ÒÀ¸¸ç, ÀÌÁ¦ ´ç½ÅÀº ³ª·ÎºÎÅÍ ±¸¿øÀ» ¾òÀ¸·Á Çϴ±º¿ä, ±×³à´Â ±×¿¡°Ô ¸»ÇÑ´Ù. ±×³à´Â ±×¿Í °áÈ¥Çϱ⸦ °ÅºÎÇÑ´Ù, ±×·¯³ª, ¼Ò¼³ÀÌ ³¡³ª°¡¸é¼,
³×Ŭ·çµµÇÁ´Â, ¸¶Ä§³» ±×°¡ Å罺ÅäÀÌÀûÀÎ Áø¸®µéÀ», ƯÈ÷ ´Ù¸¥ »ç¶÷µéÀ» ÆÇ´ÜÇÔ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¾î¸®¼®À½À», ÀÌÇØÇÏ¸é¼ ¿µÀûÀÎ °¢¼ºÀ» ¼ºÃëÇÑ´Ù. ¼Ò¼³ÀÇ °¡Àå
À¯¸íÇÑ ÀåµéÀÌ ±³È¸¿Í ¹ý·ü Á¦µµ¸¦ dzÀÚÇϰí ÀÖÀ¸³ª, ÀÌ ÀÛǰÀº ÀϹÝÀûÀ¸·Î ÀüÀï°ú ÆòÈ ±×¸®°í ¾È³ª Ä«·¹´Ï³ª º¸´Ù ÇöÀúÈ÷
µÚ¶³¾îÁö´Â °ÍÀ¸·Î ¿©°ÜÁø´Ù. |
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Tolstoy's conversion led him to write a
treatise and several essays on art. Sometimes he expressed in more extreme form
ideas he had always held (such as his dislike for imitation of fashionable
schools), but at other times he endorsed ideas that were incompatible with his
own earlier novels, which he rejected. In
Chto
takoye iskusstvo? (1898;
What
Is Art?) he argued that true art requires a sensitive appreciation of a
particular experience, a highly specific feeling that is communicated to the
reader not by propositions but by "infection." In Tolstoy's view, most
celebrated works of high art derive from no real experience but rather from
clever imitation of existing art. They are therefore "counterfeit"
works that are not really art at all. Tolstoy further divides true art into good
and bad, depending on the moral sensibility with which a given work infects its
audience. Condemning most acknowledged masterpieces, including Shakespeare's
plays as well as his own great novels, as either counterfeit or bad, Tolstoy
singled out for praise the biblical story of Joseph and, among Russian works,
Dostoyevsky's The House of the Dead
and some stories by his young friend Anton Chekhov.
He was cool to Chekhov's drama, however, and, in a celebrated witticism, once
told Chekhov that his plays were even worse than Shakespeare's.
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Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ °³Á¾Àº ±×¿¡°Ô ¿¹¼ú¿¡ °üÇÑ ÇÑ ±ÇÀÇ Ã¥°ú ¿©·¯ ÆíÀÇ ³í¹®µéÀ» ¾²µµ·Ï ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ¶§¶§·Î ±×´Â ´õ¿í ±Ø´ÜÀûÀÎ ÇüÅ·Π±×°¡ ¾ðÁ¦³ª ÁÖÀåÇÏ´ø
»ç»óµéÀ» Ç¥ÇöÇÏ¿´Áö¸¸, ¶ÇÇÑ ¶§¶§·Î ±×´Â ÀÚ±â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ Ãʱ⠼Ҽ³µé°ú ¾ç¸³ÇÏÁö ¾Ê´Â »ç»óµéÀ» ÁöÁöÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, ÃʱâÀÇ °ÍµéÀ» °ÅºÎÇÏ¿´´Ù.
Chto
takoye iskusstvo? (1898;
¿¹¼úÀº ¹«¾ùÀΰ¡?)¿¡¼ ±×´Â ÂüµÈ ¿¹¼úÀº ƯÁ¤ÇÑ °æÇè¿¡, Áï
¸íÁ¦µé¿¡ ÀÇÇØ¼°¡ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó "Àü¿°"¿¡ ÀÇÇØ¼ µ¶Àڵ鿡°Ô Àü´ÞµÇ´Â ¸Å¿ì ±¸Ã¼ÀûÀÎ ´À³¦¿¡, ´ëÇÑ ¼¶¼¼ÇÑ ÀÌÇØ¸¦ ¿ä±¸ÇÑ´Ù°í ÁÖÀåÇÏ¿´´Ù. Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ
½Ã°¢¿¡¼, ³ôÀº ¿¹¼ú¼ºÀ» °¡Áø °¡Àå À¯¸íÇÑ ÀÛǰµéÀº ½ÇÁ¦Àû °æÇè¿¡¼°¡ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó ¿ÀÈ÷·Á ±âÁ¸ ¿¹¼úÀÇ ¿µ¸®ÇÑ ¸ð¹æÀ¸·ÎºÎÅÍ ºñ·ÔµÈ´Ù. ±×°ÍµéÀº ±×·¯¹Ç·Î
»ç½Ç»ó ÀüÇô ¿¹¼úÀÌ ¾Æ´Ñ "À§Á¶µÈ" ÀÛǰµéÀÌ´Ù. Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ´õ¿íÀÌ ÂüµÈ ¿¹¼úÀ» ¼±ÇÑ °Í°ú ¾ÇÇÑ °ÍÀ¸·Î ³ª´©¸ç, ÀÌ´Â ÁÖ¾îÁø
ÀÛǰµéÀÌ Ã»ÁßÀ» ¹°µéÀÌ´Â µµ´öÀû °¨°¢·Â¿¡ ´Þ·ÁÀÖ´Ù. ´ëºÎºÐÀÇ ÀÎÁ¤µÈ ´ëÀÛµéÀ», ½¦ÀͽºÇǾîÀÇ Èñ°îµé »Ó¸¸ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó ÀÚ±â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ À§´ëÇÑ ¼Ò¼³µéÀ»
Æ÷ÇÔÇÏ¿©, ¸ðÁ¶À̰ųª ¾ÇÇÏ´Ù°í ºñ³Çϸé¼, Å罺ÅäÀ̴ Ī¼ÛÀÇ ¸ñÀûÀ¸·Î ¼º¼ÀÇ ¿ä¼Á À̾߱⠱׸®°í, ·¯½Ã¾ÆÀÎÀÇ ÀÛǰµé Áß¿¡¼, µµ½ºÅ俹ÇÁ½ºÅ°ÀÇ
[Á×Àº ÀÚÀÇ Áý] ±×¸®°í ±×ÀÇ ÀþÀº Ä£±¸ÀÎ ¾ÈÅæ üȣÇÁÀÇ ÀϺΠÀ̾߱âµéÀ» ¼±º°ÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×·¯³ª ±×´Â üȣÇÁÀÇ µå¶ó¸¶¿¡´Â ³Ã´ãÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç, ¾î´À À¯¸íÇÑ
Àç´ã¿¡¼ ÇѹøÀº üȣÇÁ¿¡°Ô ±×ÀÇ Èñ°îÀÌ ½¦ÀͽºÇǾîÀÇ °Íµé º¸´Ù ÈξÀ Á¶ÀâÇÏ´Ù°í ¸»Çß´Ù.
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Tolstoy's late works also include a
satiric drama, Zhivoy trup (written
1900; The Living Corpse), and a
harrowing play about peasant life, Vlast
tmy (written 1886; The Power of
Darkness). After his death, a number of unpublished works came to light,
most notably the novella Khadji-Murat
(1904; Hadji-Murad), a brilliant
narrative about the Caucasus reminiscent of Tolstoy's earliest fiction. |
Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ ¸¸³âÀÇ ÀÛǰµé¿¡´Â ¶ÇÇÑ Ç³ÀÚ±Ø Zhivoy trup (1900³â ÀÛ; »ì¾ÆÀÖ´Â ½Ãü), ±×¸®°í
³óºÎÀÇ »î¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ºñÂüÇÑ Èñ°î, Vlast
tmy (1886³â ÀÛ; ¾îµÒÀÇ Èû)À» Æ÷ÇÔÇÑ´Ù. ±×ÀÇ »çÈÄ¿¡, ¼ö¸¹Àº ÃâÆÇµÇÁö ¾Ê¾Ò´ø ÀÛǰµéÀÌ ºûÀ» º¸°Ô µÇ¾úÀ¸¸ç, °¡Àå
ÁÖ¸ñ¹Þ´Â °ÍÀº ÁßÆí ¼Ò¼³ Khadji-Murat
(1904; ÇÏÁö ¹«¶óÆ®)·Î¼, Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ Ãʱ⠼Ҽ³À» ¿¬»óÄÉ ÇÏ´Â ÄÚÄ«¼½º¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÈǸ¢ÇÑ ¼¼úÀÌ´Ù. |
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7. ¸»±âÀÇ »î
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With the notable exception of his
daughter Aleksandra, whom he made his heir, Tolstoy's family remained aloof from
or hostile to his teachings. His wife especially resented the constant presence
of disciples, led by the dogmatic V.G. Chertkov, at Yasnaya Polyana. Their once
happy life had turned into one of the most famous bad marriages in literary
history. The story of his dogmatism and her penchant for scenes has excited
numerous biographers to take one side or the other. Because both kept diaries,
and indeed exchanged and commented on each other's diaries, their quarrels are
almost too well documented. |
ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ »ó¼ÓÀÚ·Î ¸¸µç ±×ÀÇ µþ ¾Ë·º»êµå¶ó¸¦ ÇöÀúÇÑ ¿¹¿Ü·Î Çϰí, Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ °¡Á·Àº ±×ÀÇ °¡¸£Ä§µé¿¡¼ ¸Ö¸® Àְųª Àû´ëÀûÀ̾ú´Ù. ±×ÀÇ ¾Æ³»´Â µ¶¼±ÀûÀÎ V.G. ChertkovÀÇ µÚ¸¦ µû¶ó¼ ¾ß½º³ª¾ß Æú¸®¾ß³ª¿¡ ²öÀÓ ¾øÀÌ
³ªÅ¸³ª´Â Á¦Àڵ鿡°Ô ȸ¦ ³»¾ú´Ù. ±×µéÀÇ °ú°Å ÇູÇß´ø »îÀº ¹®ÇÐ ¿ª»ç»ó °¡Àå À¯¸íÇÑ ÁÁÁö ¾ÊÀº °áÈ¥µé ÁßÀÇ Çϳª·Î º¯Çعö·È´Ù. ±×ÀÇ µ¶´Ü·Ð°ú
±×³àÀÇ ¿¬±Ø¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Æí¾Ö´Â ¼ö¸¹Àº Àü±â ÀÛ°¡µé¿¡°Ô ÀÌÆí¿¡ ¶Ç´Â ÀúÆí¿¡ µéµµ·Ï ÀڱؽÃÄ×´Ù. µÎ »ç¶÷ ´Ù Àϱ⸦ Áö³æÀ¸¸ç, »ç½ÇÀûÀ¸·Î °¢ÀÚÀÇ
ÀϱâµéÀ» ±³È¯ÇÏ°í ¾ð±ÞÇÏ¿´±â ¶§¹®¿¡, ±×µéÀÇ ´ÙÅùÀº °ÅÀÇ ³Ê¹«³ª Àß ¹®¼È µÇ¾î ÀÖ´Ù. |
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Tormented by his domestic situation and
by the contradiction between his life and his principles, Tolstoy at last
escaped incognito from Yasnaya Polyana, accompanied by Aleksandra and his
doctor. In spite of his stealth and desire for privacy, the international press
was soon able to report on his movements. Having contracted pneumonia, he died
of heart failure at the railroad station of Astapovo (Ryazan province) on Nov. 7
(Nov. 20, New Style), 1910. |
±×ÀÇ °¡Á¤Àû »óȲ¿¡ ±×¸®°í ±×ÀÇ »î°ú ±×ÀÇ ¿ø¸®µé »çÀÌÀÇ °¥µî¿¡ °íÅë ¹ÞÀ¸¸é¼, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ¸¶Ä§³» ¸ô·¡ ¾ß½º³ª¾ß Æú¸®¾ß³ª·ÎºÎÅÍ Å»ÃâÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç,
¾Ë·º»êµå¶ó¿Í ±×ÀÇ ÁÖÄ¡ÀǸ¦ µ¿¹ÝÇÏ¿´´Ù. ±×ÀÇ ÀáÇà°ú ÀºµÐ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ °¥¸Á¿¡µµ ºÒ±¸Çϰí, ±¹Á¦ ¾ð·ÐµéÀº °ð ±×ÀÇ µ¿Çâµé¿¡ ´ëÇØ º¸µµÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ¾ú´Ù.
Æó·Å¿¡ °É¸° ÈÄ, 1910³â 11¿ù 7ÀÏ(½Å·Â 11¿ù 20ÀÏ) ±×´Â ¾Æ½ºÅ¸Æ÷º¸ (¸®¾ÆÀÜ Áö¿ª)ÀÇ ±âÂ÷¿ª¿¡¼ ½ÉÀ帶ºñ·Î Á×¾ú´Ù. |
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¡¡ |
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8. Æò°¡
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In contrast to other psychological
writers, such as Dostoyevsky, who specialized in unconscious processes, Tolstoy
described conscious mental life with unparalleled mastery. His name has become
synonymous with an appreciation of contingency and of the value of everyday
activity. Oscillating between skepticism and dogmatism, Tolstoy explored the
most diverse approaches to human experience. Above all, his greatest works, War
and Peace and Anna Karenina, endure as the summit of realist fiction. (G.S.M.) |
¹«ÀǽÄÀÇ ÀÛ¿ëµéÀ» Àü¹®À¸·Î ÇÏ´Â µµ½ºÅ俹ÇÁ½ºÅ°¿Í °°Àº ´Ù¸¥ ½É¸® ÀÛ°¡µé°ú´Â ´ëÁ¶ÀûÀ¸·Î, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â ÀǽÄÀûÀÎ Á¤½ÅÀû »îÀ» ´©±¸µµ ÇÊÀûÇÒ ¼ö ¾ø´Â
´É¼÷ÇÔÀ¸·Î ¹¦»çÇß´Ù. ±×ÀÇ À̸§Àº ¿ì¿¬¼º ¹× ÀÏ»óÀÇ È°µ¿ °¡Ä¡¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÀÌÇØ¿Í µ¿ÀǾ µÇ¾ú´Ù. ȸÀÇÁÖÀÇ¿Í ½ÅÁ¶ÁÖÀǸ¦ ¿À°¡¸é¼, Å罺ÅäÀÌ´Â Àΰ£ÀÇ
°æÇè¿¡ ´ëÇÑ °¡Àå ´Ù¾çÇÑ ½ÃµµµéÀ» ޱ¸Çß´Ù. ¹«¾ùº¸´Ùµµ, ±×ÀÇ °¡Àå À§´ëÇÑ ÀÛǰµéÀÎ, ÀüÀï°ú ÆòÈ ±×¸®°í ¾È³ª Ä«·¹´Ï³ª´Â,
Çö½ÇÁÖÀÇ ¼Ò¼³¹®ÇÐÀÇ ÀýÁ¤À¸·Î ¿À·¡ ³²À» °ÍÀÌ´Ù. |
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G.S.M. Gary Saul Morson.
Frances Hooper Professor of the Arts and Humanities; Professor of Slavic
Languages, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois. Author of Hidden in
Plain View: Narrative and Creative Potentials in "War and Peace" and others.
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MAJOR WORKS
NOVELS AND NOVELLAS: Detstvo, Otrochestvo, and Yunost
(respectively, 1852, 1854, and 1857; Childhood,
Boyhood, Youth, 1886); Kazaki
(1863; The Cossacks: A Tale of the
Caucasus in 1852, 1878); Voyna i mir
(1865-69; War and Peace, 1886); Anna
Karenina (1875-77; Eng. trans., 1886); Smert
Ivana Ilicha (1886; The Death of Ivan
Ilyitch, in Ivan Ilyitch, and Other
Stories, 1887); Kreytserova sonata
(1891; The Kreutzer Sonata, 1890); Voskreseniye
(1899; Resurrection, 1899); Khadzhi-Murat
(1912; Hadji Murad, 1912); Otets
Sergy (1912; Father Sergius, in Father
Sergius, and Other Stories, 1912).
STORIES: "Rubka lesa" (1855;
"The Wood-Cutting Expedition," in The
Invaders, and Other Stories, 1887, better known as "The
Woodfelling"); "Chem lyudi zhivy" (1882; "What People Live
By," 1886); "Mnogo li cheloveku zemli nuzhno" (1885; "Does a
Man Need Much Land," in Ivan Ilyitch
and Other Stories, 1887, better known as "How Much Land Does a Man
Need?"); "Dva starika" (1886; "The Two Pilgrims," 1887,
better known as "Two Old Men"); "Kholstomer" (1886;
"Kholstomir: A Story of a Horse," in The Invaders . . . , 1887); "Dyavol" (1911; "The
Devil," 1926).
PLAYS: Zhivoi
Trup (1911; The Living Corpse,
1911, also known as The Man Who Was Dead);
Vlast Tmy (1912; The Dominion of Darkness, 1890, better known as The
Power of Darkness).
PHILOSOPHICAL AND SOCIAL WRITINGS: Tsarstvo
bozhiye vnutri vas (first publication in French, 1893; The
Kingdom of God Is Within You, 1893); Ispoved
(1884; My Confession, 1887); V
chyom moya vera? (1884; What I
Believe, 1886); Issledovaniye
dogmaticheskogo bogosloviya (1891; Critique
of Dogmatic Theology, in My
Confession; Critique . . . , 1904); Chto
takoye iskusstvo? (1898; What Is Art?,
1898); Tak chto zhe nam delat? (1906; What
To Do?, 1887, also known as What Shall
We Do Then? or What Then Must We Do?).
EDITIONS IN RUSSIAN AND IN ENGLISH
TRANSLATION: The definitive edition in Russian is the "Jubilee"
collection: Polnoe sobranie sochenenii,
ed. by V.G. CHERTKOV, 90 vol. (1928-58). Comprehensive, though incomplete,
collections of his works in English include The
Works of Leo Tolstóy trans. by LOUISE MAUDE and AYLMER MAUDE, 21 vol.
(1928-37), known as the "Tolstóy Centenary Edition"; and The
Complete Works of Count Tolstoy, trans. by LEO WIENER, 24 vol. (1904-05,
reprinted 1968).
There are numerous translations of
Tolstoy's major works. War and Peace,
trans. by ANN DUNNIGAN (1968, reissued 1993), is the superior version; also good
is the translation by CONSTANCE GARNETT, 3 vol. (1904), and available in many
later printings. The widely available Norton critical edition, War
and Peace: The Maude Translation: Backgrounds and Sources: Essays in Criticism,
ed. by GEORGE GIBIAN (1966), succeeds less well in capturing tone, in addition
to changing Tolstoy's division of the book into sections and adding plot
summaries to each chapter. Anna Karenina,
ed. and rev. by LEONARD J. KENT and NINA BERBEROVA (1965), a revision of the
Garnett translation, is the best version; it is followed by the Norton critical
edition, Anna Karenina: The Maude
Translation: Backgrounds and Sources: Essays in Criticism, ed. by GEORGE
GIBIAN (1970).
As a general rule, where translations by
Dunnigan or Garnett are not available, translations by the Maudes are to be
preferred. The Maude versions of many of Tolstoy's works have been included in
Oxford University Press's series The
World's Classics; especially worth consulting are their translations in this
series titled Twenty-Three Tales
(1906, reprinted 1975), their well-known edition of Tolstoy's short, didactic
stories; What Is Art? and Essays on Art
(1930, reissued 1975); Childhood, Boyhood,
and Youth (1930, reissued 1969); and A Confession, The Gospel in Brief, and What I Believe (1940,
reissued 1974). For Tolstoy's short stories, a good choice is Short
Stories, compiled by ERNEST J. SIMMONS (1964), the Modern Library edition
which, in addition to several Maude translations, includes George L. Kline's
version of Tolstoy's first experiment in fiction, "A History of
Yesterday." Modern Library has also reproduced Maude translations of his Short
Novels (1965); and Selected Essays
(1964). Tolstoy's The Forged Coupon
(1985) is the best version of this posthumously published story.
Tolstoy's plays, which are often replete
with peasant dialect and many of which were left unfinished, have until recently
resisted good translation. Two early collections are Plays,
trans. by LOUISE MAUDE and AYLMER MAUDE (1914, reissued 1950); and The
Dramatic Works of Lyof N. Tolstoï, trans. by NATHAN HASKELL DOLE
(1923). A superior edition is Tolstoy:
Plays (1994- ), trans. by MARVIN KANTOR and TANYA TULCHINSKY.
An excellent selection of Tolstoy's
correspondence is Tolstoy's Letters,
ed. and trans. from Russian by R.F. CHRISTIAN, 2 vol. (1978). Selections from
his diaries (which run to 13 volumes in the Jubilee edition) are collected in Tolstoy's
Diaries, ed. and trans. from Russian by R.F. CHRISTIAN, 2 vol. (1985). The
intriguing record of Tolstoy's last year is Last
Diaries, ed. by LEON STILMAN (1960, reprinted 1979). Some other versions are
marred by inaccuracy or the suppression of passages for the sake of propriety: The
Journal of Leo Tolstoi, trans. by ROSE STRUNSKY (1917, reissued 1993),
covering the years 1895-1899; The Diaries
of Leo Tolstoy, 3 vol., trans. by C.J. HOGARTH and A. SIRNIS (1917); and The Private Diary of Leo Tolstóy, 1853-1857, trans. by LOUISE
MAUDE and AYLMER MAUDE (1927, reprinted 1972).
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The best portrait of Tolstoy the person
is MAXIM GORKY, Reminiscences of Leo
Nicolaevich Tolstoy (1920, reprinted 1977; originally published in Russian,
1919). There are several biographies of Tolstoy. AYLMER MAUDE, The
Life of Tolstoy, 2 vol. (1908-10, reissued 2 vol. in 1, 1987), is a highly
detailed account, written by a friend sympathetic to Tolstoy's teachings. ERNEST
J. SIMMONS, Leo Tolstoy (1946, reissued in 2 vol., 1960), is useful for its
generous selection of intriguing quotations concerning Tolstoy's life, though it
is weak on Tolstoy's works. HENRI TROYAT, Tolstoy (1967, reprinted 1980; originally published in French,
1965), captures the drama of Tolstoy's life; it is marred, however, by the use
of autobiographical fiction as if it were nonfictional documents. Because Troyat
is skeptical of Tolstoy's religious teachings, his biography is a useful
counterpoint to Maude's. A whimsical biography by a prominent Russian writer and
critic is VICTOR SHKLOVSKY (VIKTOR SHKLOVSKII), Lev Tolstoy (1978; originally published in Russian, 1963). Also of
interest is A.N. WILSON, Tolstoy
(1988). N.N. GUSEV, Letopis' zhizni i
tvorchestva L'va Nikolaevicha Tolstogo, 2 vol. (1958-60), is a chronology of
facts.
Informative works on Tolstoy's wife are The
Diaries of Sophia Tolstoy, trans. by CATHY PORTER (1985); and S.A. TOLSTAIA,
Autobiography of Countess Tolstoy, trans.
from Russian by S.S. KOTELIANSKY and LEONARD WOOLF (also published as The
Autobiography of Countess Sophie Tolstoi, 1922). Accounts of the Tolstoy's
marriage are CYNTHIA ASQUITH, Married to
Tolstoy (1960); ANNE EDWARDS, Sonya:
The Life of Countess Tolstoy (1981); and LOUISE SMOLUCHOWSKI, Lev
and Sonya: The Story of the Tolstoy Marriage (1987). ALEXANDRA TOLSTOY, Tolstoy:
A Life of My Father (1953, reissued 1975; originally published in Russian, 2
vol., 1953), presents another view.
A number of anthologies include Russian
and Western criticism spanning the period from Tolstoy's time to the present.
Especially useful are HENRY GIFFORD (ed.), Leo
Tolstoy: A Critical Anthology (1971); A.V. KNOWLES (ed.), Tolstoy:
The Critical Heritage (1978); and EDWARD WASIOLEK (ed.), Critical
Essays on Tolstoy (1986). Other collections of historical criticism are
DONALD DAVIE (ed.), Russian Literature and
Modern English Fiction: A Collection of Critical Essays (1965); HAROLD BLOOM
(ed.), Leo Tolstoy (1986); and RALPH
E. MATLAW (ed.), Tolstoy: A Collection of
Critical Essays (1967). Collections of recent criticism include MALCOLM
JONES (ed.), New Essays on Tolstoy
(1978); and HUGH McLEAN (ed.), In the Shade of the Giant: Essays on Tolstoy (1989). A number of
excellent works of Russian criticism are available in translation--e.g.,
KONSTANTIN LEONTIEV, "The Novels of Count L.N. Tolstoy: Analysis, Style,
and Atmosphere--A Critical Study," in SPENCER E. ROBERTS (ed. and trans.), Essays in Russian Literature: The Conservative View (1968), pp.
225-356; and DMITRI MEREJKOWSKI (DMITRY S. MEREZHKOVSKY), Tolstoi As Man and Artist (1902, reprinted 1970; originally
published in Russian, 1901). BORIS EIKHENBAUM, The Young Tolstoi (1972; originally published in Russian, 1922), Tolstoi
in the Sixties (1982; originally published in Russian, 1931), and Tolstoi
in the Seventies (1982; originally published in Russian, 1960), are three
works by a writer who is, by common consent, the greatest Tolstoy critic,
although many disagree with his preference for purely formal explanations.
General overviews of Tolstoy's works may
be found in GEORGE STEINER, Tolstoy or
Dostoevsky: An Essay in the Old Criticism (1959, reprinted 1985), a lively
study; EDWARD WASIOLEK, Tolstoy's Major
Fiction (1978); R.F. CHRISTIAN, Tolstoy:
A Critical Introduction (1969); and JOHN BAYLEY, Tolstoy and the Novel (1966, reissued 1988). An influential view of
Tolstoy as a lifelong religious thinker is RICHARD F. GUSTAFSON, Leo
Tolstoy: Resident and Stranger: A Study in Fiction and Theology (1986).
Studies on War and Peace include ISAIAH BERLIN, The Hedgehog and the Fox: An Essay on Tolstoy's View of History
(1953, reprinted 1993); R.F. CHRISTIAN, Tolstoy's
"War and Peace" (1962); GARY SAUL MORSON, Hidden in Plain View: Narrative and Creative Potentials in "War and
Peace" (1987); and the essays in the Norton critical edition of the
novel cited above. On Anna Karenina,
the essays in the Norton critical edition, also cited above, are helpful,
especially the piece by BARBARA HARDY, "Form and Freedom: Tolstoy's Anna
Karenina," pp. 877-899. Tolstoy's
Short Fiction, ed. and trans. by MICHAEL R. KATZ (1991), a Norton critical
edition, contains an excellent selection of criticism.
Tolstoy's views of art are outlined in
the brief work by GEORGE GIBIAN, Tolstoj
and Shakespeare (1957, reprinted 1974); and RIMVYDAS SILBAJORIS, Tolstoy's
Aesthetics and His Art (1991). Tolstoy and sexuality are dealt with in PETER
ULF M¨ªLLER, Postlude to The Kreutzer Sonata: Tolstoj and the Debate on Sexual
Morality in Russian Literature in the 1890s (1988; originally published in
Danish, 1983). Much fine material appears in Tolstoy Studies Journal (annual). (G.S.M.)
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- ÀüÁý
- ´ëÅ罺ÅäÀÌ ÀüÁý Àü9±Ç : L. Å罺ÅäÀÌ, ±èÇмö ¿Ü ¿ª,
½Å±¸¹®È»ç, 1970
- Àü±â
- ¶Ê½º¶ÇÀÌ(âºñ±³¾ç¹®°í 4) : ¹Îº´»ê, âÀÛ°ú ºñÆò»ç, 1985
- Å罺ÅäÀÌ Àü±â : ¹æÃáÇØ, ´ë¹®»ç, 1957
- Å罺ÅäÀÌÀÇ ÀÏ»ý(Àü±â½Å¼) : ¹ÚÁ¤ºÀ, ¹üÁ¶»ç, 1954
- ºñÆò¼
- º¯Çõ±â ·¯½Ã¾ÆÀÇ ¸®¾ó¸®Áò ¹®ÇÐ : G. ·çīġ, Á¶Á¤È¯ ¿ª,
µ¿³è, 1986
- ·¯½Ã¾Æ ¹®ÇÐÀÇ ¼¼°è : ¹ÚÇü±Ô, °í·Á´ëÇб³ ÃâÆÇºÎ, 1985
- Å罺ÅäÀÌ³Ä µµ½ºÅ俹ÇÁ½ºÅ°³Ä : G. ½ºÅ¸À̳Ê, À±Áö°ü ¿ª,
Á¾·Î¼Àû, 1983
- Å罺ÅäÀÌ - »ý¾Ö¿Í »ç»ó : J. ¶óºê¸°, ÀÌö ¿ª,
ÇาÃâÆÇ»ç, 1980
- Å罺ÅäÀÌ »ýȰ°ú ¹®ÇÐ : R. ·Ñ¶û, ¿ÀÇö¿ì ¿ª, Á¤À½»ç, 1963
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[ Intro by Aylmer Maude ] [ Intro by Flowers ] [ by Sanderson Beck ] [ by E.T. Simmons ] [ by Gary Saul Morson ] [ by Park Noja ] [ Å罺ÅäÀÌ ¿¬º¸ ]
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