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[Home] [Up] [Contents] [Preface] [Bibliographical Note] [A Note on the Text] [WHAT IS ART?] I  II  III  IV  V  VI  VII  VIII  IX  X  XI  XII  XIII  XIV  XV  XVI  XVII  XVIII  XIX  XX [CONCLUSION] [Appendix I] [Appendix II] [Notes]


WHAT IS ART?

¿¹¼úÀº ¹«¾ùÀΰ¡?


by Leo Tolstoy

TRANSLATED BY RICHARD PEVEAR
AND LARISSA VOLOKHONSKY

What Is Art?

¿¹¼úÀº ¹«¾ùÀΰ¡?

¡¡

III

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I will begin with the founder of aesthetics, Baumgarten. ¹ÌÇÐÀÇ Ã¢½ÃÀÚ, ¹Ù¿ò°¡¸£ÅÙºÎÅÍ ½ÃÀÛÇØ º¸°íÀÚ ÇÑ´Ù.
According to Baumgarten, the object of logical knowledge is truth; the object of aesthetic (that is, sensuous) knowledge is beauty. Beauty is the perfect (the absolute) perceived by the senses. Truth is the perfect perceived by reason. The good is the perfect attained by the moral will. ¹Ù¿ò°¡¸£ÅÙ¿¡ µû¸£¸é, ³í¸®Àû Áö½ÄÀÇ ´ë»óÀº Áø¸®ÀÌ´Ù; ¹ÌÇÐÀû (Áï, °ü´ÉÀû) Áö½ÄÀÇ ´ë»óÀº ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÌ´Ù. ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº Áö°¢µé¿¡ ÀÇÇØ ÀνĵǴ ¿ÏÀü¼º (Àý´ë¼º)ÀÌ´Ù. ¼±Àº µµ´öÀû ÀÇÁö¿¡ ÀÇÇØ ¼ºÃëµÇ´Â ¿ÏÀü¼ºÀÌ´Ù.
Beauty, according to Baumgarten, is defined by correspondence, that is, by the order of the parts in their mutual relations to each other, and in their relation to the whole. The aim of beauty itself is to be pleasing and to arouse desire (Wohlgefallen und Erregung eines Verlanges) a thesis directly contradictory to Kant¡¯s notion of the main property and token of beauty. ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº, ¹Ù¿ò°¡¸£ÅÙ¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, Á¶È­¿¡ ÀÇÇØ  Áï, ºÎºÐµéÀÇ »óÈ£ °ü°èµé ¾È¿¡¼­ ºÎºÐµéÀÇ ¼­·Î¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Áú¼­¿¡ ÀÇÇØ, ±×¸®°í ±×µéÀÇ Àüü¿¡ ´ëÇÑ °ü°è¿¡ ÀÇÇØ Á¤ÀÇ µÈ´Ù. ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÇ ¸ñÀû ÀÚü´Â Áñ°Ì°Ô ÇÏ´Â °Í ¹× ¿å¸ÁÀ» À¯¹ß½ÃŰ´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù (Wohlgefallen und Erregung eines Verlanges) Ä­Æ®ÀÇ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿ò¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ±âº» ¼ºÁú ¹× »ó¡¿¡ ´ëÇÑ °ü³ä¿¡ Á¤¸éÀ¸·Î ´ëÄ¡µÇ´Â ÁÖÀåÀÌ´Ù.
As for the manifestations of beauty, Baumgarten thinks that we perceive the highest manifestation of beauty in nature, and therefore the imitation of nature is, according to Baumgarten, the highest task of art (also a thesis directly contradictory to the judgments of the latest aestheticians). ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÇ Ç¥Çöµé¿¡ ´ëÇØ, ¹Ù¿ò°¡¸£ÅÙÀº ¿ì¸®°¡ ÀÚ¿¬¿¡¼­ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿ò¿¡ °üÇÑ ÃÖ»óÀÇ Ç¥ÇöÀ» ÀνÄÇÑ´Ù°í »ý°¢ÇÑ´Ù, ±×·¯¹Ç·Î ÀÚ¿¬ÀÇ ¸ð¹æÀº, ¹Ù¿ò°¡¸£ÅÙ¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¿¹¼úÀÇ ÃÖ°íÀÇ ÀÓ¹«ÀÌ´Ù (¶ÇÇÑ ÃÖ±ÙÀÇ ¹ÌÇÐÀÚµéÀÇ ÆÇ´Üµé¿¡ Á¤¸éÀ¸·Î ´ëÄ¡µÇ´Â ÁÖÀåÀÌ´Ù).
Passing over Baumgarten¡¯s not very remarkable followers — Maier, Eschenburg and Eberhardt [14] — who only slightly modified their teacher¡¯s views by distinguishing the pleasant from the beautiful — I will set down the definitions of beauty in writers who came directly after Baumgarten and who define beauty quite differently. These writers are Schütz, Sulzer, Mendelssohn and Moritz. [15] In contradiction to Baumgarten¡¯s main thesis, these writers recognize as the aim of art not beauty, but the good. Thus Sulzer says that only that which contains the good can be recognized as beautiful. According to Sulzer, the aim of the whole life of mankind is the welfare of social life. It is attained through education of the moral sense, and art should be subservient to this aim. Beauty is that which evokes and educates this sense. ¹Ù¿ò°¡¸£ÅÙÀÇ ±×¸® µÎµå·¯ÁöÁö ¾ÊÀº ÃßÁ¾ÀÚµé — ¸¶À̾î, ¿¡½¨¹ö±× ¹× ¾îº£Çϸ£Æ® — À̵éÀº ¿ÀÁ÷ Áñ°Å¿òÀ» ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿ò°ú ±¸º°ÇÔÀ¸·Î½á ±×µé ½º½ÂÀÇ °ßÇØµéÀ» ¾à°£ ¼öÁ¤ÇÏ¿´´Ù — Àº Á¢¾îµÎ°í, ³ª´Â ¹Ù¿ò°¡¸£ÅÙ Á÷ÈÄ¿¡ µîÀåÇÏ¿´À¸¸ç ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀ» ¸Å¿ì ´Ù¸£°Ô Á¤ÀÇÇÏ´Â ÀÛ°¡µé¿¡¼­ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÇ Á¤ÀǵéÀ» Àû¾î º¸°íÀÚ ÇÑ´Ù. À̵é ÀÛ°¡µéÀº ½¬Æ®, ¼úó, ¸àµ¨½ºÁ¸ ¹× ¸ð¸®Ã÷ÀÌ´Ù. ¹Ù¿ò°¡¸£ÅÙÀÇ ±âº» ÁÖÀå°ú ¹Ý´ëÇÏ¿©, À̵é ÀÛ°¡µéÀº ¿¹¼úÀÇ ¸ñÀûÀ» ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó ¼±À̶ó°í ÀνÄÇÑ´Ù. ±×·¡¼­ ¼úó´Â ¿ÀÁ÷ ¼±À» ´ã´Â °Í¸¸ÀÌ ¾Æ¸§´ä´Ù°í ÀÎ½ÄµÉ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù°í ¸»ÇÑ´Ù. ¼úó¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ÀηùÀÇ Àüü »îÀÇ ¸ñÀûÀº »çȸÀû »îÀÇ ÇູÀÌ´Ù. ±×°ÍÀº µµ´öÀû Áö°¢ÀÇ ±³À°À» ÅëÇØ ´Þ¼ºµÇ¸ç, ¿¹¼úÀº ÀÌ·± ¸ñÀû¿¡ ºÎÇյǾî¾ß ÇÑ´Ù. ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ÀÌ·± °¨°¢À» Àϱú¿ì°í ±³À°ÇÏ´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù.
Mendelssohn understands beauty in almost the same way. Art, according to Mendelssohn, is a carrying of the beautiful, perceived by some vague sense, to the level of the true and the good. And the aim of art is moral perfection. ¸àµ¨½ºÁ¸Àº ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀ» °ÅÀÇ ¶È°°ÀÌ ÀÌÇØÇÑ´Ù. ¸àµ¨½ºÁ¸¿¡ µû¸£¸é, ¿¹¼úÀº ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀ», ¾à°£ ¸ðÈ£ÇÑ Àǹ̷ΠÀνĵÇÁö¸¸, Áø¸®¿Í ¼±ÀÇ ¼öÁØÀ¸·Î ²ø°í °¡´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ±×¸®°í ¿¹¼úÀÇ ¸ñÀûÀº µµ´öÀû ¿Ï¼ºÀÌ´Ù.
For aestheticians of this tendency, the ideal of beauty is a beautiful soul in a beautiful body. So that for them the division of the perfect (the absolute) into its three forms, of the true, the good and the beautiful, is completely effaced, and beauty again merges with the good and the true. ÀÌ·± °æÇâÀÇ ¹ÌÇÐÀڵ鿡°Ô À־, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÇ ÀÌ»óÀº ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿î ¿µÈ¥°ú ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿î À°Ã¼ÀÌ´Ù. ±×¸®ÇÏ¿© ±×µé¿¡°Ô À־ Áø¸®, ¼±ÇÔ ¹× ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÇ ¼¼°¡Áö Çüŵé·ÎÀÇ ¿ÏÀü¼º(Àý´ë¼º)ÀÇ ºÐÇÒÀº ¿ÏÀüÈ÷ »ç¶óÁö¸ç, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ´Ù½Ã ¼±ÇÔ ¹× Áø¸®¿Í °áÇÕÇÑ´Ù.
However, not only is this understanding of beauty not retained by later aestheticians, but there appears the aesthetics of Winckelmann, again completely opposite to these views, most decisively and sharply separating the tasks of art from the aim of the good, and setting as the aim of art an external and even merely plastic beauty. ±×·¯³ª, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿ò¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÀÌ·± ÀÌÇØ´Â ³ªÁßÀÇ ¹ÌÇÐÀڵ鿡 ÀÇÇØ ÁöÁöµÇÁö ¾ÊÀ» »Ó¸¸ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó, ´Ù½Ã ÀÌ·± °ßÇØµé¿¡ ¿ÏÀüÈ÷ ¹Ý´ëµÇ´Â À®Ä̸¸ÀÇ ¹ÌÇÐÀÌ µîÀåÇÏ¿©, ¿¹¼úÀÇ ÀÓ¹«µéÀ» ¼±ÀÇ ¸ñÇ¥·ÎºÎÅÍ °¡Àå °áÁ¤ÀûÀÌ¸ç ¿¹¸®ÇÏ°Ô ºÐ¸®½Ã۸ç, ¿¹¼úÀÇ ¸ñÇ¥¸¦ ¿ÜÀûÀÌ¸ç ½ÉÁö¾î ´Ü¼øÈ÷ Á¶ÇüÀÇ ¹Ì·Î ¼³Á¤ÇÑ´Ù.
According to the famous work of Winckelmann, [16] the law and aim of all art is beauty alone, completely separate from and independent of the good. Beauty can be of three kinds: (1) beauty of form; (2) beauty of idea, expressed in the pose of the figure (with regard to plastic art); (3) beauty of expression, which is possible only in the presence of the first two conditions. This beauty of expression is the highest aim of art, and was in fact realized in antique art. Consequently, the art of the present day should strive to imitate antique art. À®Ä̸¸ÀÇ À¯¸íÇÑ ÀÛǰ¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¸ðµç ¿¹¼úÀÇ ¹ýÄ¢°ú ¸ñÇ¥´Â ¿ÀÁ÷ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀ̸ç, ¼±°ú´Â ¿ÏÀüÈ÷ ºÐ¸® µ¶¸³µÈ´Ù. ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ¼¼°¡Áö Á¾·ù°¡ ÀÖÀ» ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù: (1) ÇüÅÂÀÇ ¹Ì; (2) (Á¶Çü ¹Ì¼ú°ú °ü·ÃÇÏ¿©) Çü»óÀÇ À§Ä¡¿¡¼­ Ç¥ÇöµÇ´Â, °³³äÀÇ ¹Ì; (3) Á÷ ¾ÕÀÇ µÎ °¡Áö Á¶°ÇµéÀÇ Á¸Àç ¾È¿¡¼­ °¡´ÉÇÑ, Ç¥ÇöÀÇ ¹Ì. ÀÌ Ç¥ÇöÀÇ ¹Ì´Â ¿¹¼úÀÇ ÃÖ°íÀÇ ¸ñÇ¥À̸ç, »ç½Ç °í´ë ¿¹¼ú¿¡¼­ ½ÇÇöµÇ¾ú´Ù. °á±¹, ¿À´Ã³¯ÀÇ ¿¹¼úÀº °í´ëÀÇ ¿¹¼úÀ» Èä³» ³»·Á°í ¾Ö¾²´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù.
Beauty is understood in the same way by Lessing and Herder, then by Goethe and all prominent German aestheticians up to Kant, from whose time, again, a different understanding of art begins. ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº  ·¹½Ì°ú Ç츣´õ¿¡ ÀÇÇØ, ´ÙÀ½À¸·Î  ±«Å× ¹× Ä­Æ®¿¡ À̸£±â±îÁöÀÇ ¸ðµç Ź¿ùÇÑ ¹ÌÇÐÀڵ鿡 ÀÇÇØ, µ¿ÀÏÇÑ ¹æ¹ýÀ¸·Î ÀÌÇØµÇ¸ç, ±×µéÀÇ ½Ã´ë·ÎºÎÅÍ, ´Ù½Ã±Ý, ¿¹¼ú¿¡ ´ëÇÑ »ö´Ù¸¥ ÀÌÇØ°¡ ½ÃÀ۵ȴÙ.
In England, France, Italy and Holland at this same time, independently from the German writers, native aesthetic theories were born, just as unclear and contradictory, and all these aestheticians, in exactly the same way as the Germans, place the concept of beauty at the foundation of their reasoning, understanding it as something that exists absolutely and either merges more or less with the good, or has the same root. In England, at around the same time as Baumgarten, or even a little earlier, Shaftesbury, Hutcheson, Home, Burke, Hogarth [17] and others wrote on art. ¿µ±¹, ÇÁ¶û½º, ÀÌÅ»¸®¾Æ ¹× ³×´ú¶õµå¿¡¼­ µ¿½Ã¿¡, µ¶ÀÏÀÇ ÀÛ°¡µé°ú´Â °ü°è¾øÀÌ, ÅäÂøÀûÀÎ ¹ÌÇÐÀû À̷еéÀÌ »ý°Ü³µÀ¸¸ç, ¸¶Âù°¡Áö·Î ºÒ¸í·áÇÏ¸ç ¸ð¼øÀûÀ̸ç, ÀÌ ¸ðµç ¹ÌÇÐÀÚµéÀº, µ¶Àϰú Á¤È®È÷ µ¿ÀÏÇÑ ¹æ¹ýÀ¸·Î, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÇ °³³äÀ» ±×µéÀÇ Ãß·ÐÀÇ ±âÀú¿¡ µÎ¸ç, ±×°ÍÀ» Àý´ëÀûÀ¸·Î Á¸ÀçÇϰųª ´Ù¼Ò°£¿¡ ¼±°ú º´ÇÕÇÏ´Â ¾î¶² °ÍÀ¸·Î ÀÌÇØÇϸ鼭, µ¿ÀÏÇÑ »Ñ¸®¸¦ °®°í ÀÖ´Ù. ¿µ±¹¿¡¼±, ¹Ù¿ò°¡¸£ÅÙ°ú ´ë·« ºñ½ÁÇϰųª ½ÉÁö¾î Á¶±Ý ÀÏÂï, »þÇÁÅ×½ºº£¸®, ÇãÄ¡½¼, Ȩ, ¹öÅ©, È£°¡½º ¹× ´Ù¸¥ ÀÛ°¡µéÀÌ ¿¹¼ú¿¡ ´ëÇØ ½è´Ù.
According to Shaftesbury, what is beautiful is harmonious and proportionate; what is beautiful and proportionate is true; and what is beautiful and at the same time true, is also pleasant and good. Beauty, according to Shaftesbury, is known only by the spirit. God is the principal beauty — the beautiful and the good proceed from a single source. Thus, even though Shaftesbury regards beauty as something separate from the good, they still merge again into something inseparable. »þÇÁÅ×½ºº£¸®¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¾Æ¸§´ä´Ù´Â °ÍÀº Á¶È­¿Í ±ÕÇüÀÌ´Ù; ¾Æ¸§´ä°í ±ÕÇü ÀÖ´Â °ÍÀÌ Áø¸®ÀÌ´Ù; ±×¸®°í ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿ì¸ç µ¿½Ã¿¡ Áø¸®ÀÎ °ÍÀº ¶ÇÇÑ Áñ°Å¿ì¸ç ¼±ÇÑ °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº, »þÇÁÅ×½ºº£¸®¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¿ÀÁ÷ ¿µÈ¥¿¡ ÀÇÇØ ¾Ë·ÁÁø´Ù. ½ÅÀº Á¦ÀÏÀÇ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÌ´Ù — ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿ò°ú ¼±ÇÔÀº ´Ü ÇϳªÀÇ ±Ù¿ø¿¡¼­ ³ª¾Æ°£´Ù. ±×¸®ÇÏ¿©, »þÇÁÅ×½ºº£¸®°¡ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀ» ¼±ÇÔ°ú´Â º°°³ÀÇ ¾î¶² °ÍÀ¸·Î ¿©±âÁö¸¸, ±×°ÍµéÀº ¿©ÀüÈ÷ ´Ù½Ã ¶¼¾î³¾ ¼ö ¾ø´Â ¾î¶² °ÍÀ¸·Î ÇÕÃÄÁø´Ù.
According to Hutcheson, in his Origin of Our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue, the aim of art is beauty, the essence of which consists in the manifestation of unity within diversity. In the perception of what is beautiful we are guided by ethical instinct (¡®an internal sense¡¯). This instinct may be contrary to the aesthetic one. Thus, according to Hutcheson, beauty no longer always coincides with the good, but is separate from it and sometimes contrary to it. ÇãÄ¡½¼¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ±×°¡ ¾´ ¹Ì¿Í ¼±¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¿ì¸® »ç»óµéÀÇ ±â¿ø¿¡¼­, ¿¹¼úÀÇ ¸ñÀûÀº ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀ̸ç, ±× º»ÁúÀº ´Ù¾ç¼º ¾È¿¡¼­ ÅëÀϼºÀÇ Ç¥Çö¿¡ ÀÖ´Ù. ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿î °Í¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÀνĿ¡¼­ ¿ì¸®´Â À±¸®Àû º»´É ('³»Àû Áö°¢')¿¡ ÀÇÇØ ÀεµµÈ´Ù. ÀÌ·± º»´ÉÀº ¹ÌÀûÀÎ °Í¿¡ ¹ÝÇÒ ¼öµµ ÀÖÀ» °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ÀÌ·¸°Ô ÇØ¼­, ÇãÄ¡½¼¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ´õ ÀÌ»ó ¾ðÁ¦³ª ¼±ÇÔ°ú ÀÏÄ¡ÇÏÁö ¾ÊÀ¸¸ç, ±×°Í°ú ºÐ¸®µÇ¾î ÀÖÀ¸¸ç ¶§·Î´Â ±×°Í¿¡ ´ëÄ¡µÇ±âµµ ÇÑ´Ù.
According to Home, beauty is that which is pleasant. And therefore beauty is determined only by taste. The basis for correct taste consists in the greatest wealth, fullness, force and diversity of impressions being contained within the strictest limits. This is the ideal of the perfect work of art. Ȩ¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº Áñ°Å¿î °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ±×¸®°í ±×·¯¹Ç·Î ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ¿À·ÎÁö ÃëÇâÀ¸·Î °áÁ¤µÈ´Ù. Á¤È®ÇÑ ÃëÇâÀÇ ±âÃÊ´Â °¡Àå ¾ö°ÝÇÑ Á¦ÇÑµé ¾È¿¡ ´ã°Ü ÀÖ´Â ÃÖ´ëÀÇ ºÎ, ¿ÏÀüÇÔ, Èû, ¹× ÀλóµéÀÇ ´Ù¾ç¼ºÀÌ´Ù. À̰ÍÀº ¿ÏÀüÇÑ ¿¹¼ú ÀÛǰÀÇ ÀÌ»óÀÌ´Ù.
According to Burke, in his Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful, the sublime and the beautiful, which constitute the aim of art, are based on the sense of self-preservation and the sense of communality. These senses, considered at their sources, are means for maintaining the gens through the individual. The first is achieved by nourishment, defence and war; the second by communion and reproduction. And therefore self-preservation and the war connected with it are the source of the sublime, while communality and the sexual need connected with it are the source of beauty. ¹öÅ©¿¡ µû¸£¸é, ±×ÀÇ ¼þ°íÇÔ ¹× ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿ò¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¿ì¸®ÀÇ »ç»óµéÀÇ ±â¿ø¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Ã¶ÇÐÀû °íÂû¿¡¼­, ¼þ°íÇÔ°ú ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº, ¿¹¼úÀÇ ¸ñÀûÀ» ±¸¼ºÇÏ´Â °ÍÀ¸·Î, Àڱ⠺¸Á¸ÀÇ °¨°¢ ¹× °øµ¿¼ºÀÇ °¨°¢¿¡ ±âÃÊÇÑ´Ù. ÀÌ·± °¨°¢µéÀº, ±×µéÀÇ ±Ù¿øµé¿¡ µû¶ó °í·ÁÇϸé, °³Ã¼¸¦ ÅëÇÑ ¾¾Á·ÀÇ À¯Áö¸¦ À§ÇÑ ¼ö´ÜÀÌ´Ù. ù°´Â ¾çºÐ, ¹æ¾î ¹× ÀüÀïÀ¸·Î, µÑ°´Â ±³Á¦¿Í Àç»ý»êÀ¸·Î ´Þ¼ºµÈ´Ù. ±×·¯¹Ç·Î À̰Ͱú ¿¬°üµÈ Àڱ⠺¸Á¸ ¹× ÀüÀïÀº ¼þ°íÇÔÀÇ ±Ù¿øÀ̸ç, À̰Ͱú ¿¬°üµÈ °øµ¿¼º ¹× ¼ºÀû ¿å±¸´Â ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÇ ±Ù¿øÀÌ´Ù.
Such were the main English definitions of art and beauty in the eighteenth century. ÀÌ·¯ÇÔÀÌ ¹Ù·Î 18¼¼±âÀÇ ¿¹¼ú ¹× ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿ò¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¿µ±¹ÀÇ ÁÖµÈ Á¤ÀǵéÀÌ´Ù.
In France at the same time, Père André, Batteux, [18] and, later, Diderot, D¡¯Alembert and, to some extent, Voltaire, wrote on art. °°Àº ½Ã´ëÀÇ ÇÁ¶û½º¿¡¼­, ÇÇ¿¡¸£ ¾Èµå·¹, ¹ÙÅä, ¹× ÈıâÀÇ µðµ¥·Î, ´Þ·¥¹öÆ® ±×¸®°í, ¾î´À ¸é¿¡¼­, º¼Å׸£°¡ ¿¹¼ú¿¡ °üÇÏ¿© ½è´Ù.
According to Père André (Essai sur Ie Beau), there are three kinds of beauty: (1) divine beauty, (2) natural beauty and (3) artificial beauty. ÇÇ¿¡¸£ ¾Èµå·¹ (Essai sur Ie Beau)¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¼¼ °¡ÁöÀÇ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÌ ÀÖ´Ù: (1)½ÅÀûÀÎ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿ò, (2)ÀÚ¿¬ÀûÀÎ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿ò ±×¸®°í (3)ÀÎÀ§ÀûÀÎ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿ò.
According to Batteux, art consists in imitating the beauty of nature, and its aim is pleasure. Diderot¡¯s definition of art is the same. The arbiter of what is beautiful is supposed to be taste, just as with the English. But not only are the laws of taste not established, it is even acknowledged that to do so is impossible. D¡¯Alembert and Voltaire were of the same opinion. ¹ÙÅä¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¿¹¼úÀº ÀÚ¿¬ÀÇ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀ» Èä³» ³¿¿¡ ÀÖÀ¸¸ç, ±× ¸ñÀûÀº Äè¶ôÀÌ´Ù. µðµ¥·ÎÀÇ ¿¹¼úÀÇ Á¤Àǵµ µ¿ÀÏÇÏ´Ù. ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿î °Í¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ½ÉÆÇÀÚ´Â ÃëÇâÀ¸·Î µÇ¾î ÀÖÀ¸¸ç, ¿µ±¹°ú °ÅÀÇ °°´Ù. ±×·¯³ª ÃëÇâÀÇ ¹ýÄ¢µéÀº È®¸³µÇÁö ¾Ê¾ÒÀ» »Ó¸¸ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó, ½ÉÁö¾î ±×·¸°Ô ÇÑ´Ù´Â °ÍÀº ºÒ°¡´ÉÇÏ´Ù°í ÀÎÁ¤µÇ¾î Áø´Ù. ´Þ·½¹öÆ®¿Í º¼Å׸£´Â °°Àº ÀǰßÀÌ´Ù.
According to Pagano [19], an Italian aesthetician of the same time, art consists in the uniting into one of the beauties scattered through nature. The ability to see these beauties is taste; the ability to unite them in one whole is artistic genius. Beauty, according to Pagano, merges with the good in such fashion that beauty is the good made manifest, while the good is inner beauty. °°Àº ½Ã´ëÀÇ ÀÌÅ»¸®¾Æ ¹ÌÇÐÀÚ ÆÄ°¡³ë¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ÀÚ¿¬¿¡ µÎ·ç Èð¾îÁ® ÀÖ´Â ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òµéÀ» Çϳª·Î °áÇÕÇÏ´Â °Í¿¡ ÀÖ´Ù°í ÇÑ´Ù. ÀÌ·± ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òµéÀ» º¸´Â ´É·ÂÀº ÃëÇâÀÌ´Ù; ±×°ÍµéÀ» ÇϳªÀÇ Àüü·Î ¿«´Â ´É·ÂÀº ¿¹¼úÀû õÀ缺ÀÌ´Ù. ÆÄ°¡³ë¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÌ ¼±ÇÔ°ú ÇÕÃÄÁö°í,  ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº Ç¥ÇöµÇ¾îÁø ¼±ÇÔÀÌ µÇ´Â °ÍÀ̸ç, ¹Ý¸é¿¡ ¼±ÇÔÀº ³»¸éÀÇ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÌ µÇ´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù.
According to other Italians — Muratori in his Riflessioni sopra il buon gusto intorno le science e le arti, and especially Spaletti in his Saggio sopra la belezza [20] art comes down to an egoistic sensation, based, as in Burke, on the striving for self-preservation and communality. ´Ù¸¥ ÀÌÅ»¸®¾ÆÀε鿡 ÀÇÇÏ¸é — ¹«¶óÅ丮´Â ±×ÀÇ ÀÛǰ Riflessioni sopra il buon gusto intorno le science e le arti¿¡¼­, ±×¸®°í ƯÈ÷ ½ºÆÄ·¹Æ¼´Â ±×ÀÇ ÀÛǰ Saggio sopra la belezza¿¡¼­ — ¿¹¼úÀº À̱âÀûÀÎ °¨°¢À¸·Î ±Í°áµÇ¸ç, ¹öũó·³, Àڱ⠺¸Á¸ ¹× °øµ¿¼ºÀ» Ãß±¸ÇÔ¿¡ ±âÃʸ¦ µÎ°í ÀÖ´Ù.
Among the Dutch, Hemsterhuis, [21] who influenced the German aestheticians and Goethe, is noteworthy. According to his teaching, beauty is that which gives us the greatest pleasure, and that which gives us the greatest pleasure is that which gives us the greatest number of ideas within the shortest time. The pleasure of the beautiful is the highest knowledge to which man can attain, because it gives the greatest number of perceptions in the shortest time. ³×´ú¶õµåÀÎ °¡¿îµ¥¼­, Çð½ºÅÍ·çÀ̽º°¡ ¾ð±ÞÇÒ ¸¸Çϸç, µ¶ÀÏ ¹ÌÇÐÀÚµé°ú ±«¿¡Å׿¡°Ô ¿µÇâÀ» ÁÖ¾ú´Ù. ±×ÀÇ °¡¸£Ä§¿¡ µû¸£¸é, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ÃÖ´ëÀÇ Äè¶ôÀ» ÁÖ´Â °ÍÀ̸ç, ¿ì¸®¿¡°Ô °¡Àå Å« Äè¶ôÀ» ÁÖ´Â °ÍÀÌ Ãִܽ𣠳»¿¡ °¡Àå ¸¹Àº »ý°¢µéÀ» ÁÖ´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÇ Äè¶ôÀº »ç¶÷ÀÌ ¾òÀ» ¼ö ÀÖ´Â ÃÖ°íÀÇ Áö½ÄÀÌ´Ù, ¿Ö³ÄÇÏ¸é ±×°ÍÀº Ãִܽ𣠳»¿¡ ÃÖ´ëÀÇ ÀνĵéÀ» Áֱ⠶§¹®ÀÌ´Ù.
Such were the theories of aesthetics outside Germany during the last century. In Germany, after Winckelmann, there again appeared a completely new aesthetic theory, that of Kant, which more than all others clarifies the essence of the concept of beauty, and therefore also of art. ÃÖ±Ù ¹é ³â µ¿¾È µ¶ÀÏ ¹ÛÀÇ ¹ÌÇÐÀÇ À̷еéÀº ÀÌ·¯Çß´Ù. µ¶ÀÏ¿¡¼­, À®Ä̸¸ ÀÌÈÄ¿¡, ÀüÇô »õ·Î¿î ¹ÌÇÐ ÀÌ·ÐÀÌ µîÀåÇߴµ¥, Ä­Æ®ÀÇ °ÍÀ¸·Î, ÀÌ´Â ´Ù¸¥ ¸ðµç °Íµé º¸´Ù ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÇ °³³äÀÇ, ±×·¯¹Ç·Î ¿¹¼úÀÇ, º»ÁúÀ» ¸íÈ®ÇÏ°Ô ÇÑ´Ù.
Kant¡¯s aesthetics is based on the following: man, according to Kant, perceives nature outside himself and himself in nature. In nature outside himself he seeks the true; within himself he seeks the good — the first is a matter of pure reason, and the second of practical reason (freedom). Besides these two means of perception, there is, according to Kant, also the power of judgement (Urteilskraft), which forms judgements without concepts and produces pleasure without desire (Urteil ohne Begriffund Vergnugen ohne Begehren). It is this power which constitutes the basis of the aesthetic sense. And beauty, according to Kant, is in a subjective sense that which, without concepts and without practical benefit, is generally and necessarily pleasing, and in an objective sense is the form of a purposeful object in so far as it is perceived without any notion of its purpose. Ä­Æ®ÀÇ ¹ÌÇÐÀº ´ÙÀ½¿¡ ±âÃÊÇϰí ÀÖ´Ù: »ç¶÷Àº, Ä­Æ®¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, Àڱ⠹ۿ¡¼­ ÀÚ¿¬À» Àڱ⸦ ÀÚ¿¬¿¡¼­ ÀνÄÇÑ´Ù. Àڱ⠹ÛÀÇ ÀÚ¿¬¿¡¼­ ±×´Â Áø¸®¸¦ Ãß±¸ÇÑ´Ù; Àڱ⠾ȿ¡¼­ ±×´Â ¼±À» Ãß±¸ÇÑ´Ù — ÀüÀÚ´Â ¼ø¼ö À̼ºÀÇ, ÈÄÀÚ´Â ½Çõ À̼º (ÀÚÀ¯)ÀÇ ¹®Á¦ÀÌ´Ù. ÀÌµé µÎ °¡Áö ÀνÄÀÇ ¼ö´Üµé ¿Ü¿¡, Ä­Æ®¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¶ÇÇÑ ÆÇ´Ü·Â(Urteilskraft)ÀÌ ÀÖÀ¸¸ç, ÀÌ´Â °³³äµéÀÌ ¾ø´Â ÆÇ´ÜµéÀ» Çü¼ºÇÏ¸ç ¿å¸Á ¾ø´Â Äè¶ô(Urteil ohne Begriffund Vergnugen ohne Begehren)À» ¸¸µé¾î ³½´Ù. ¹ÌÀûÀÎ °¨°¢ÀÇ ±âÃʸ¦ ±¸¼ºÇÏ´Â °ÍÀº ¹Ù·Î ÀÌ ÈûÀÌ´Ù. ±×¸®°í Ä­Æ®¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ÁÖ°üÀû Àǹ̷δÂ, °³³äµéÀÌ ¾ø°í ½Ç¿ëÀû ÀÌÀÍÀÌ ¾øÀÌ,  ÀϹÝÀûÀ¸·Î ±×¸®°í ÇÊ¿¬ÀûÀ¸·Î Áñ°Å¿î °ÍÀ̸ç, °´°üÀû Àǹ̷δ Àǵµ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¾î¶² °ü³äÀÌ ¾øÀÌ ÀνĵǴ ÇÑ ÀǵµÀû ´ë»óÀÇ ÇüÅÂÀÌ´Ù.
Beauty is defined in the same way by Kant¡¯s followers, Schiller among them. According to Schiller, who wrote much on aesthetics, the aim of art, as with Kant, is beauty, the source of which is pleasure without practical usefulness. So that art may be called play, though not in the sense of a worthless occupation, but in the sense of a manifestation of the beauty of life itself, which has no other aim than beauty. ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº Ä­Æ®ÀÇ ÃßÁ¾Àڵ鿡°Ô µ¿ÀÏÇÑ ¹æ¹ýÀ¸·Î Á¤ÀǵǸç, ½¯·¯´Â ±×µé¿¡ ¼ÓÇÑ´Ù. ½¯·¯¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ±×´Â ¹ÌÇп¡ ´ëÇÏ¿© ¸¹ÀÌ ½èÀ¸¸ç, ¿¹¼úÀÇ ¸ñÀûÀº, Ä­Æ®ÀÇ °æ¿ìó·³, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀ̸ç, ±× ±Ù¿øÀº ½Ç¿ëÀû À¯ÀÍÇÔÀÌ ¾ø´Â Äè¶ôÀÌ´Ù. ±×¸®ÇÏ¿© ¿¹¼úÀº ¿À¶ôÀ̶ó°í ºÒ¸± °ÍÀ̸ç, ÇÏÁö¸¸ °¡Ä¡ ¾ø´Â Ȱµ¿ÀÇ Àǹ̿¡¼­¶ó ¾Æ´Ï¶ó, »îÀÇ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿ò ÀÚüÀÇ Ç¥ÇöÀ̶ó´Â Àǹ̿¡¼­À̸ç, »îÀº ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿ò ¿ÜÀÇ ¸ñÀûÀº °¡ÁöÁö ¾Ê´Â´Ù.
Besides Schiller, the most remarkable of Kant¡¯s followers in the field of aesthetics were Jean-Paul and Wilhelm Humboldt, who, while adding nothing to the definition of beauty, clarified its various kinds — drama, music, the comic, etc. ½¯·¯¿Ü¿¡µµ, ¹ÌÇÐ ºÐ¾ß¿¡¼­ Ä­Æ®ÀÇ ÃßÁ¾ÀÚµé Áß °¡Àå ¶Ù¾î³­ »ç¶÷Àº Àå Æú ¹× ºôÇ︧ Ç躼Ʈ·Î, À̵éÀº, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÇ Á¤ÀÇ¿¡ ¾Æ¹« °Íµµ ÷°¡ÇÏÁö ¾ÊÀº ¹Ý¸é, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÇ ´Ù¾çÇÑ Á¾·ù — µå¶ó¸¶, À½¾Ç, Äڹ̵ð, µî — ¸¦ ºÐ¸íÈ÷ ÇÏ¿´´Ù.
After Kant, besides some second-rate philosophers, Fichte, Schelling, Hegel and their followers wrote on aesthetics. According to Fichte, consciousness of the beautiful arises in the following way. The world — that is, nature — has two sides: it is the product of our limitation, and it is also the product of our free ideal activity. In the first sense, the world is limited, in the second it is free. In the first sense, every body is limited, distorted, compressed, constrained, and we see ugliness; in the second, we see inner fullness, vitality, regeneration — we see beauty. Thus the ugliness or beauty of an object, according to Fichte, depends on the point of view of the contemplator. And that is why beauty is located, not in the world, but in the beautiful soul (schöner Geist). Art, then, is the manifestation of this beautiful soul, and its aim is education, not only of the mind, which is the work of the scholar, not only of the heart, which is the work of the moral preacher, but of the whole man. And therefore the token of beauty is not in anything external, but in the presence of a beautiful soul in the artist. Ä­Æ® ÈÄ¿¡, ÀϺΠÀÌ·ùÀÇ Ã¶ÇÐÀÚµé ¿Ü¿¡µµ, ÇÇÈ÷Å×, ½©¸µ, Çì°Ö ¹× ±×µéÀÇ ÃßÁ¾Àڵ鵵 ¹ÌÇп¡ °üÇØ ½è´Ù. ÇÇÈ÷Å׿¡ µû¸£¸é, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿ò¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÀǽÄÀº ´ÙÀ½°ú °°Àº ¹æ¹ýÀ¸·Î ÀϾ´Ù: ¼¼»ó — Áï, ÀÚ¿¬ — Àº ¾ç¸éÀ» Áö´Ï°í ÀÖ´Ù: ±×°ÍÀº ¿ì¸® ÇѰèÀÇ »ê¹°ÀÌ´Ù, ±×¸®°í ¶ÇÇÑ ¿ì¸®ÀÇ ÀÚÀ¯·Î¿î ÀÌ»óÀû ÇൿÀÇ »ê¹°ÀÌ´Ù. ù° Àǹ̿¡¼­, ¼¼»óÀº Á¦ÇÑÀûÀ̸ç, µÑ° Àǹ̿¡¼­ ±×°ÍÀº ÀÚÀ¯·Ó´Ù. ù° Àǹ̿¡¼­ ¸ðµÎ°¡ Á¦Çѵǰí, ¿Ö°îµÇ°í, ¾ï¾ÐµÇ¸ç, °­¾ÐµÇ¸ç, ¿ì¸®´Â ÃßÇÔÀ» º»´Ù; µÑ°¿¡¼­ ¿ì¸®´Â ³»Àû Ãæ¸¸, »ýµ¿, ¹× Àç»ýÀ» º»´Ù — ¿ì¸®´Â ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀ» º»´Ù. ±×·¡¼­ ´ë»óÀÇ ÃßÇÔ ¶Ç´Â ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº, ÇÇÈ÷Å׿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, °üÂûÀÚÀÇ °üÁ¡¿¡ ´Þ·ÁÀÖ´Ù. ±×¸®°í ±×°ÍÀÌ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÌ, ¼¼»óÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿î ¿µÈ¥(schöner Geist) ¾È¿¡ ³õ¿© ÀÖ´Â ÀÌÀ¯´Ù. ±×·¸´Ù¸é, ¿¹¼úÀº ÀÌ·± ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿î ¿µÈ¥ÀÇ Ç¥ÇöÀ̸ç, ±× ¸ñÀûÀº ±³À°À¸·Î¼­, ÇÐÀÚµéÀÇ ÀÛǰÀÎ Á¤½Å¿¡ ´ëÇØ¼­ »Ó¸¸ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó, µµ´ö ¼³±³ÀÚÀÇ ÀÛǰÀÎ ¸¶À½¿¡ ´ëÇØ¼­ »Ó¸¸ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó, Àüü »ç¶÷¿¡ ´ëÇÑ °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ±×·¯¹Ç·Î, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÇ Áõ°Å´Â ¾î¶² ¿ÜÀûÀÎ °Í¿¡ ÀÖÁö ¾ÊÀ¸¸ç, ¿¹¼ú°¡¿¡°Ô ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿î ¿µÈ¥ÀÇ ½ÇÀç¿¡ ÀÖ´Ù.
Following Fichte, Friedrich Schlegel and Adam Müller defined beauty along the same lines. According to Schlegel, beauty in art is understood too incompletely, one-sidedly and separately; beauty is not only in art, but also in nature, and also in love, so that the truly beautiful is expressed in the union of art, nature and love. Therefore Schlegel recognizes moral and philosophical art as inseparable from aesthetic art. ÇÇÈ÷Å× ´ÙÀ½À¸·Î, ÇÁ¸®µå¸®È÷ ½¯·¹°Ö°ú ¹Á·¯´Â ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀ» µ¿ÀÏÇÑ ¹æÇâÀ¸·Î Á¤ÀÇÇÏ¿´´Ù. ½¯·¹°Ö¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¿¹¼ú¿¡¼­ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ³Ê¹«³ª ºÒ¿ÏÀüÇϰÔ, ÇÑÂÊÀ¸·Î Ä¡¿ìÃļ­ ±×¸®°í µ¿¶³¾îÁö°Ô ÀÌÇØµÈ´Ù; ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ¿¹¼ú¿¡¸¸ ÀÖÁö ¾Ê°í ÀÚ¿¬¿¡µµ, ±×¸®°í »ç¶û¿¡µµ À־, ÁøÁ¤ÇÑ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ¿¹¼ú, ÀÚ¿¬ ±×¸®°í »ç¶ûÀÇ °áÇÕÀ¸·Î Ç¥ÇöµÈ´Ù. ±×·¯¹Ç·Î ½¯·¹°ÖÀº µµ´öÀû ¹× öÇÐÀû ¿¹¼úÀ» ¹ÌÇÐÀûÀÎ ¿¹¼ú·ÎºÎÅÍ ¶¼¾î³¾ ¼ö ¾ø´Â °ÍÀ¸·Î ÀνÄÇÑ´Ù.
According to Adam Müller, [22] there are two beauties: one is a social beauty which attracts people as the sun attracts the planets — this is predominantly antique beauty; the other is an individual beauty, which becomes so because he who contemplates it himself becomes a sun that attracts beauty — this is the beauty of the new art. A world in which all contradictions are harmonized is the highest beauty. Every work of art is a repetition of this universal accord. The highest art is the art of life. ¾Æ´ã ¹Á·¯¿¡ µû¸£¸é, µÎ °¡ÁöÀÇ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òµéÀÌ ÀÖ´Ù: Çϳª´Â žçÀÌ Ç༺µéÀ» ²ø¾î ´ç±âµíÀÌ »ç¶÷µéÀ» ²ø¾î ´ç±â´Â »çȸÀû ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÌ´Ù — ÀÌ´Â ¾ÐµµÀûÀ¸·Î °í´ëÀÇ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÌ´Ù; ´Ù¸¥ Çϳª´Â °³ÀÎÀû ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀ¸·Î, ÀÌ·¸°Ô µÇ´Â ÀÌÀ¯´Â ±×°ÍÀ» °¨»óÇÏ´Â »ç¶÷ ÀÚ½ÅÀÌ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀ» ²ø¾î ´ç±â´Â žçÀÌ µÇ±â ¶§¹®ÀÌ´Ù — À̰ÍÀº »õ·Î¿î ¿¹¼úÀÇ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÌ´Ù. ¸ðµç ¸ð¼øµéÀÌ Á¶È­¸¦ ÀÌ·ç´Â ¼¼»óÀº ÃÖ°íÀÇ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÌ´Ù. ¸ðµç ¿¹¼ú ÀÛǰÀº ÀÌ °°Àº º¸ÆíÀû ÀÏÄ¡ÀÇ ¹Ýº¹ÀÌ´Ù. ÃÖ°íÀÇ ¿¹¼úÀº »îÀÇ ¿¹¼úÀÌ´Ù.
The next philosopher to have great influence on the aesthetic notions of our time was Schelling, a contemporary of Fichte and his followers. According to Schelling, art is the product or consequence of a world view in which the subject becomes its own object, or the object itself its own subject. Beauty is the representation of the infinite within the finite. And the main character of the work of art is unconscious infinity. Art is the uniting of the subjective with the objective, of nature and reason, of the unconscious with the conscious. And therefore art is the highest means of knowledge. Beauty is the contemplation of things in themselves, as they are in the foundation of all things (in den Urbildern). The beautiful is produced not by the artist, through his own knowledge or will, but by the idea of beauty itself. ¿ì¸® ½Ã´ëÀÇ ¹ÌÇÐÀû °ßÇØµé¿¡ Ä¿´Ù¶õ ¿µÇâÀ» ÁÖ´Â ´ÙÀ½ÀÇ Ã¶ÇÐÀÚ´Â ½©¸µÀ¸·Î, ÇÇÈ÷Å×¿Í ±×ÀÇ ÃßÁ¾ÀÚµé°ú µ¿½Ã´ë ÀÎÀÌ´Ù. ½©¸µ¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¿¹¼úÀº ÁÖü°¡ ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ °´Ã¼°¡ µÇ°Å³ª, °´Ã¼ ÀÚü°¡ ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ÁÖü°¡ µÇ´Â ¼¼°èÀÇ ½Ã°¢ÀÇ »ê¹° ¶Ç´Â °á°úÀÌ´Ù. ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº À¯ÇÑÇÔ ¾ÈÀÇ ¹«ÇÑÇÔÀÇ Ç¥ÃâÀÌ´Ù. ±×¸®°í ¿¹¼ú ÀÛǰÀÇ ÁÖµÈ ¼º°ÝÀº ÀǽÄÇÏÁö ¸øÇÏ´Â ¹«ÇѼºÀÌ´Ù. ¿¹¼úÀº ÀÚ¿¬°ú À̼ºÀÇ ÁÖ°ü¼ºÀ» °´°ü¼ºÀ¸·Î, ¹«ÀǽÄÀ» ÀǽÄÀ¸·Î °áÇÕÇÏ´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ±×¸®°í ±×·¯¹Ç·Î ¿¹¼úÀº Áö½ÄÀÇ ÃÖ°íÀÇ ¼ö´ÜÀÌ´Ù. ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº »ç¹°µéÀ» ±× ÀÚüµé·Î °¨»óÇÔÀ̸ç, ±×°ÍµéÀº ¸¸¹°ÀÇ ±âÃÊ ¾È¿¡ ÀÖ´Ù (in den Urbildern). ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ¿¹¼ú°¡¿¡ ÀÇÇØ, ÀÚ±â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ Áö½Ä ¶Ç´Â ÀÇÁö¸¦ ÅëÇØ¼­°¡ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿ò ÀÚü¿¡ ´ëÇÑ °³³ä¿¡ ÀÇÇØ¼­ ¸¸µé¾î Áø´Ù.
Among Schelling¡¯s followers the most notable was Solger with his Vorlesungen über Ästhetik. [23] According to Solger, the idea of beauty is the principal idea of any thing. In the world we see only the perversion of the principal idea, but art, through imagination, may rise to the height of the principal idea. And therefore art is the likeness of creation. ½©¸µÀÇ ÃßÁ¾ÀÚµé Áß¿¡¼­ °¡Àå ÁÖ¸ñÇÒ ¸¸ »ç¶÷Àº Vorlesungen über Ästhetik¸¦ ÁöÀº ¼Ö°ÅÀÌ´Ù. ¼Ö°Å¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÇ °³³äÀº ¸ðµç °ÍÀÇ Á¦ÀÏ °³³äÀÌ´Ù. ¼¼»ó¿¡¼­ ¿ì¸®´Â ¿ÀÁ÷ Á¦ÀÏ °³³äÀÇ ¿Ö°î¸¸À» º¼ »ÓÀÌÁö¸¸, ¿¹¼úÀº, »ó»óÀ» ÅëÇÏ¿©, Á¦ÀÏ °³³äÀÇ ³ôÀÌ¿¡ À̸¦ ¼ö ÀÖ°Ô ÇÑ´Ù. ±×·¯¹Ç·Î ¿¹¼úÀº âÁ¶¿Í ºñ½ÁÇÏ´Ù.
According to another of Schelling¡¯s followers, Krause, [24] true and real beauty is the manifestation of the idea in an individual form; and art is the realization of beauty in the realm of the free human spirit. The highest stage of art is the art of life, which directs its activity to the adornment of life, so as to make it a beautiful place for the beautiful man to live. ½©¸µÀÇ ÃßÁ¾ÀÚµé Áß ¶Ç ÇÑ »ç¶÷ÀÎ Å©¶ó¿ì½º¿¡ µû¸£¸é, Áø½ÇµÇ¸ç »ç½ÇÀûÀÎ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº °³ÀÎÀû ÇüÅ ¾È¿¡¼­ °³³äÀÇ Ç¥ÇöÀÌ´Ù; ±×¸®°í ¿¹¼úÀº ÀÚÀ¯·Î¿î Àΰ£ Á¤½ÅÀÇ ¿µ¿ª ¾È¿¡¼­ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÇ ½ÇÇöÀÌ´Ù. ¿¹¼úÀÇ ÃÖ°íÀÇ °æÁö´Â »îÀÇ ¿¹¼úÀ̸ç, À̰ÍÀº ±× Ȱµ¿¼ºÀ» »îÀÇ Àå½ÄÀ¸·Î ÇâÇÏ°Ô Çϸç, ±×¸®ÇÏ¿© À̰÷ÀÌ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿î »ç¶÷ÀÌ »ì±â À§ÇÑ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿î °÷À¸·Î ¸¸µå´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù.
After Schelling and his followers comes the new aesthetic teaching of Hegel, still held to this day, consciously by many, unconsciously by most. This teaching is not only no clearer or more definite than the preceding ones, but is, if such were possible, still more foggy and mystical. ½©¸µ ¹× ±×ÀÇ ÃßÁ¾ÀÚµé ÈÄ¿¡ Çì°ÖÀÇ »õ·Î¿î ¹ÌÇÐÀû °¡¸£Ä§ÀÌ ³ª¿À´Âµ¥, ¿À´Ã³¯µµ ÀǽÄÀûÀ¸·Ð ¸¹Àº »ç¶÷µé¿¡ ÀÇÇØ, ¹«ÀǽÄÀûÀ¸·Ð ´ëºÎºÐ¿¡ ÀÇÇØ, ¿©ÀüÈ÷ ÁöÁöµÇ°í ÀÖ´Ù. ÀÌ °¡¸£Ä§Àº ÀÌÀüÀÇ °Íµé¿¡ ºñÇØ ´õ¿í ¸í·áÇϰųª È®½ÇÇÏÁöµµ ¾ÊÀ» »Ó¸¸ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó, ±×·¯ÇÔÀÌ °¡´ÉÇÏ´Ù ÇÏ´õ¶óµµ, ¿©ÀüÈ÷ ¸·¿¬ÇÏ¸ç ¸ðÈ£ÇÏ´Ù.
According to Hegel, God manifests himself in nature and art in the form of beauty. God expresses himself in two ways: in the object and in the subject, in nature and in spirit. Beauty is the idea shining through matter. Only the spirit, and all that partakes of the spirit, is truly beautiful, and therefore the beauty of nature is merely a reflection of the beauty proper to the spirit: the beautiful has only spiritual content. But the spiritual must manifest itself in a sensuous form. Yet the sensuous manifestation of the spirit is merely an appearance (Schein). This appearance is the sole reality of the beautiful. Art, then, is the realization of this appearance of the idea, and is a means, together with religion and philosophy, of bringing to consciousness and giving utterance to the profoundest tasks of men and the highest truths of the spirit. Çì°Ö¿¡ µû¸£¸é, ½ÅÀÌ ÀÚ¿¬°ú ¿¹¼ú¿¡¼­ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀ̶ó´Â ¸ð½ÀÀ¸·Î ½º½º·Î µå·¯³½´Ù. ½ÅÀº µÎ °¡Áö ¹æ¹ýÀ¸·Î ÀÚ½ÅÀ» µå·¯³½´Ù: °´Ã¼¿¡¼­ ±×¸®°í ÁÖü¿¡¼­, ÀÚ¿¬¿¡¼­ ±×¸®°í Á¤½Å¿¡¼­. ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ¹°ÁúÀ» ÅëÇØ ºû³ª´Â °³³äÀÌ´Ù.¿ÀÁ÷ Á¤½Å¸¸ÀÌ, ±×¸®°í Á¤½ÅÀ» °øÀ¯ÇÏ´Â ¸ðµç °ÍÀº ÁøÁ¤À¸·Î ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿ì¸ç, ±×·¯¹Ç·Î ÀÚ¿¬ÀÇ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ´Ü¼øÈ÷ Á¤½Å¿¡ ÀûÇÕÇÑ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÇ ¹Ý¿µÀÏ »ÓÀÌ´Ù: ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ¿ÀÁ÷ Á¤½ÅÀûÀÎ ³»¿ëÀ» Áö´Ñ´Ù. ÇÏÁö¸¸ Á¤½ÅÀûÀÎ °ÍÀº ¹Ýµå½Ã °ü´ÉÀûÀÎ ÇüÅ·ΠÀÚ½ÅÀ» Ç¥ÇöÇØ¾ß ÇÑ´Ù. ±×·¯¸é¼­µµ Á¤½ÅÀÇ °ü´ÉÀû Ç¥ÇöÀº ´ÜÁö ¿Ü¾ç(Schein)ÀÏ »ÓÀÌ´Ù. ÀÌ ¿Ü¾çÀº ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÇ À¯ÀÏÇÑ ½ÇüÀÌ´Ù. ¿¹¼úÀº, ±×·¸´Ù¸é, °³³ä¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÀÌ·± ¿Ü¾çÀÇ ½ÇÇöÀ̸ç, Á¾±³ ¹× öÇаú ´õºÒ¾î, ÀǽÄÀ¸·Î ´Ù°¡°¨ ¹× »ç¶÷ÀÇ °¡Àå ½É¿ÀÇÑ °úÁ¦µé ¹× Á¤½ÅÀÇ ÃÖ°íÀÇ Áø¸®µéÀ» ¹ñ¾î³¿ÀÇ ¼ö´ÜÀÌ´Ù.
Truth and beauty, according to Hegel, are the same. The only difference is that truth is the idea in itself, as it exists in itself and is thinkable, while the idea expressed externally becomes, for consciousness, not only true but also beautiful. The beautiful is the manifestation of the idea. Áø¸® ¹× ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº, Çì°Ö¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, µ¿ÀÏÇÑ °ÍÀÌ´Ù. À¯ÀÏÇÑ Â÷ÀÌ´Â Áø¸®´Â, ±× ÀÚü·Î Á¸ÀçÇÏ¸ç »ý°¢µÉ ¼ö Àֱ⿡, ±× ÀÚü·Î¼­ °³³äÀ̸ç,  ¹Ý¸é¿¡ ¿ÜÀûÀ¸·Î Ç¥ÇöµÈ °³³äÀº, ÀνÄÀ» À§ÇÏ¿©, ÂüµÇ¾î Áú »Ó ¾Æ´Ï¶ó ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿öÁø´Ù. ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº °³³äÀÇ Ç¥ÇöÀÌ´Ù.
After Hegel came his many followers: Weisse, Arnold Ruge, Rosenkrantz, Theodor Vischer, [25] and others. Çì°Ö¿¡ µÚÀÌ¾î ±×ÀÇ ¸¹Àº ÃßÁ¾ÀÚµéÀÌ ÀÖ´Ù: ¹ÙÀ̽º, ¾Æ³îµå ·çÁî, ·Î·»Å©¶õÆ®, Å׿Àµµ¸£ ºñ¼Å µîÀÌ´Ù.
According to Weisse, art is the introduction (Einbildung) of the absolute spiritual essence of beauty into external, dead and indifferent matter, understood, apart from the beauty introduced into it, as the negation of any existence in itself (Negation alles Fürsichseins). ¹ÙÀ̽º¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¿¹¼úÀº ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÇ Àý´ëÀû ¿µÀû Á¤¼ö¸¦ ¿ÜÀûÀ̸ç Á×¾îÀÖ°í ¹«°¨°¢ÇÑ ¹°Áú¿¡ ÁÖÀÔÇÔÀ̸ç, ±×°Í ¾È¿¡ ÁÖÀԵǴ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿ò°ú´Â º°°³·Î, ±× ÀÚü ¾È¿¡¼­ ¾î¶² Á¸ÀçÀÇ ºÎÁ¤À¸·Î ÀÌÇØµÇ´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù (Negation alles Fürsichseins).
In the idea of truth, says Weisse, there lies a contradiction between the subjective and the objective sides of knowledge, in that the singular I perceives the All. This contradiction can be removed by means of a concept that would unite into one the moments of allness and oneness, which fall into two in the concept of truth. This concept would be a reconciled (aufgehoben) truth — and beauty is such a reconciled truth. ¹ÙÀ̽º´Â ¸»Çϱ⸦, Áø¸®ÀÇ °³³ä ¾È¿¡´Â Áø¸®ÀÇ ÁÖ°üÀû ¹× °´°üÀû Ãø¸éµé »çÀÌÀÇ ¸ð¼øÀÌ ³õ¿© ÀÖÀ¸¸ç, ±× ¾È¿¡¼­ ´Ü¼öÀÇ ³»°¡ ¸ðµç °ÍÀ» ÀÎÁöÇÑ´Ù. ÀÌ ¸ð¼øÀº Àüü¼º ¹× ´ÜÀϼºÀÇ ÇÑ ¼ø°£µé·Î °áÇÕÇØ ³ª°¡´Â °³³ä¿¡ ÀÇÇÏ¿© Á¦°ÅµÉ ¼ö ÀÖÀ¸¸ç, À̰ÍÀº Áø¸®ÀÇ °³³ä ¾È¿¡¼­ µÑ·Î ³ª´©¾î Áø´Ù. ÀÌ °³³äÀº ÀÏÁ¾ÀÇ ÀýÃæµÈ Áø¸®ÀÏ °ÍÀÌ´Ù - ±×¸®°í ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ±×¿Í °°Àº ÀýÃæµÈ Áø¸®ÀÌ´Ù.
According to Ruge, a strict Hegelian, beauty is the self-expressing idea. The spirit, as it contemplates itself, finds itself expressed either fully — and then this full self-expression is beauty — or not fully — and then the need arises in it to change its imperfect expression, in which event spirit becomes creative art. ¾ö°ÝÇÑ Çì°ÖÁÖÀÇÀÚÀÎ, ·çÁî¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ÀÚ½ÅÀ» Ç¥ÇöÇÏ´Â °³³äÀÌ´Ù. Á¤½ÅÀº, ½º½º·Î¸¦ ÁÖ½ÃÇϸ鼭 ¿ÏÀüÇÏ°Ô — ÀÌ °æ¿ì ÀÌ·± ¿ÏÀüÇÑ ÀÚ±â Ç¥ÇöÀº ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÌ´Ù — ¶Ç´Â ¿ÏÀüÇÏÁö ¾Ê°Ô — ÀÌ °æ¿ì ±× ¾È¿¡¼­ ºÒ¿ÏÀüÇÑ Ç¥ÇöÀ» ¹Ù²Ù°íÀÚ ÇÏ´Â Çʿ伺ÀÌ »ý°Ü³ª¸ç, ÀÌ °æ¿ì Á¤½ÅÀº âÀÇÀûÀÎ ¿¹¼ú·Î µÈ´Ù — Ç¥ÇöµÇ´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù.
According to Vischer, beauty is the idea in the form of a limited manifestation. The idea itself is not indivisible, but constitutes a system of ideas which are represented by ascending and descending lines. The higher the idea, the more beauty it contains, but even the lowest contains beauty, because it constitutes a necessary link in the system. The highest form of the idea is the person, and therefore the highest art is that which has the highest person for its subject. ºñ¼Å¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ÀÏÁ¾ÀÇ Á¦ÇÑÀû Ç¥ÇöÀÇ ¸ð½ÀÀ» ÇÑ °³³äÀÌ´Ù. °³³ä ÀÚü´Â ³ª´­ ¼ö ¾øÁö¸¸ »óÇâ ¹× ÇÏÇâ ¼±µé·Î ´ëÇ¥µÇ´Â °³³äµéÀÇ Ã¼°è¸¦ ±¸¼ºÇÑ´Ù. °³³äÀÌ °í»óÇÒ ¼ö·Ï ´õ ¸¹Àº ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀ» Áö´Ñ´Ù, ÇÏÁö¸¸ ½ÉÁö¾î ÃÖ¾ÇÀÌ´õ¶óµµ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀ» Æ÷ÇÔÇÑ´Ù, ¿Ö³ÄÇÏ¸é ±×°ÍÀÌ Ã¼°èÀûÀ¸·Î ÇÊ¿äÇÑ ¿¬°áÀ» ±¸¼ºÇϱ⠶§¹®ÀÌ´Ù. °¡Àå °í»óÇÑ ÇüÅÂÀÇ °³³äÀº ÀΰÝÀÌ´Ù, ±×·¯¹Ç·Î °¡Àå °í»óÇÑ ¿¹¼úÀº ±× ÁÖÁ¦¿¡ ÇÕ´çÇÑ °¡Àå °í»óÇÑ ÀΰÝÀ» Áö´Ï´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù.
Such are the German theories of aesthetics of the Hegelian tendency only; but aesthetic discussions are not thereby exhausted: alongside Hegelian theories, there appeared simultaneously in Germany theories of beauty which not only do not recognize Hegel¡¯s propositions about beauty as the manifestation of the idea, and art as the expression of this idea, but which are directly opposed to such a view, deny it, and laugh at it. Such are the theories of Herbart [26] and, particularly, of Schopenhauer. ÀÌ·¯ÇÑ °ÍµéÀº ¿ÀÁ÷ Çì°Ö ÇÐÆÄÀÇ °æÇâÀÇ ¹ÌÇÐ À̷еéÀÌ´Ù; ±×·¯³ª ¹ÌÇÐÀûÀÎ ³íÀǵéÀº ¿©±â¼­ ±×Ä¡Áö ¾Ê´Â´Ù: Çì°Ö ÆÄÀÇ À̷еé°ú º´ÇàÇÏ¿©, °³³äÀÇ Ç¥»óÀ¸·Î¼­ÀÇ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿ò, ±×¸®°í ÀÌ·± °³³äÀÇ Ç¥ÇöÀ¸·Î¼­ÀÇ ¿¹¼ú¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Çì°ÖÀÇ ¸íÁ¦µéÀ» ÀÎÁ¤ÇÏÁö ¾ÊÀ» »Ó¸¸ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó, ±×·± °üÁ¡¿¡ Á¤¸éÀ¸·Î ¹Ý´ëµÇ¸ç, ±×°ÍÀ» ºÎÁ¤Çϰí, Á¶·ÕÇÏ´Â À̷еéÀÌ µ¿½Ã¿¡ µ¶ÀÏ¿¡¼­ µîÀåÇÏ¿´´Ù. ÀÌ·¯ÇÑ °ÍµéÀº Ç츣¹ÙÆ®, ƯÈ÷, ¼îÆæÇÏ¿ì¾îÀÇ À̷еéÀÌ´Ù.
According to Herbart, beauty does not and cannot exist in itself; what exists is only our judgement, and it is necessary to find the principles of this judgement (ästhetisches Elementarurteil). These principles of judgement are related to impressions. There exist certain relations which we call beautiful, and art consists in finding these relations — simultaneous in painting, plastic art and architecture; both successive and simultaneous in music; and successive alone in poetry. In opposition to the previous aestheticians, Herbart holds that beautiful objects often express nothing at all — a rainbow, for example, which is beautiful owing to its line and colours, and by no means with regard to its mythical significance as Iris or the rainbow of Noah. Ç츣¹ÙÆ®¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ±× ÀÚü·Î¼­ Á¸ÀçÇϰųª Á¸ÀçÇÒ ¼öµµ ¾ø´Ù; Á¸ÀçÇÏ´Â °ÍÀº ¿ÀÁ÷ ¿ì¸®ÀÇ ÆÇ´ÜÀ̸ç, ÀÌ·± ÆÇ´ÜÀÇ ¿ø¸®µéÀ» ¹ß°ßÇÏ´Â °ÍÀÌ ÇÊ¿äÇÏ´Ù (ästhetisches Elementarurteil). ÀÌ¿Í °°Àº ÆÇ´ÜÀÇ ¿ø¸®µéÀº Àλóµé¿¡ °ü°èµÇ¾î ÀÖ´Ù.¿ì¸®°¡ ¾Æ¸§´ä´Ù°í ºÎ¸£´Â ƯÁ¤ÇÑ °ü°èµéÀÌ Á¸ÀçÇÑ´Ù, ±×¸®°í ¿¹¼úÀº ÀÌ·± °ü°èµé — ¹Ì¼ú, Á¶Çü ¿¹¼ú ¹× °ÇÃà¿¡¼­´Â µ¿½ÃÀûÀÎ; À½¾Ç¿¡¼­´Â ¿¬¼ÓÀûÀÌ¸ç µ¿½ÃÀûÀÎ; ±×¸®°í ½Ã¿¡¼­´Â ´ÜÁö ¿¬¼ÓÀûÀÎ — À» ¹ß°ßÇÔ¿¡ ÀÖ´Ù. ÀÌÀüÀÇ ¹ÌÇÐÀڵ鿡 ¹Ý´ëÇϸ鼭, Ç츣¹ÙÆ®´Â ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿î ¹°Ã¼µéÀº ¶§¶§·Î ¾Æ¹«°Íµµ Ç¥ÇöÇÏÁö ¾Ê´Â´Ù°í ÁÖÀåÇÑ´Ù — ¹«Áö°³´Â, ¿¹¸¦ µé¸é, ±× ¼±°ú »ö»óµé ¶§¹®¿¡ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿ì¸ç, ±×¸®°í °áÄÚ ¾ÆÀ̸®½º ¶Ç´Â ³ë¾ÆÀÇ ¹«Áö°³Ã³·³ ½ÅÈ­Àû ÀÇ¹Ì¿Í °ü·ÃÇØ¼­°¡ ¾Æ´Ï´Ù.
Another opponent of Hegel was Schopenhauer, who denied the entire system of Hegel, including his aesthetics. Çì°ÖÀÇ ´Ù¸¥ ¹Ý´ëÀÚ´Â ¼îÆæÇÏ¿ì¾î¿´À¸¸ç, ±×´Â Çì°ÖÀÇ Àüü ½Ã½ºÅÛÀ», ±×ÀÇ ¹ÌÇаú ÇÔ²², ºÎÁ¤ÇÏ¿´´Ù.
According to Schopenhauer, the will is objectivized in the world on various levels, and the higher the level of its objectivization, the more beautiful it is — each level having its own beauty. Abstraction from our own individuality and contemplation of one of these levels of the manifestation of will gives us the consciousness of beauty. All men, according to Schopenhauer, possess the ability to perceive this idea on its different levels and thereby to be liberated for a time from their person. The artistic genius has this ability in the highest degree, and therefore manifests the highest beauty. ¼îÆæÇÏ¿ì¾î¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ÀÇÁö°¡ ´Ù¾çÇÑ ¼öÁص鿡¼­ ¼¼»ó¿¡ °´°üÈ­µÇ¸ç, °´°üÈ­°¡ ³ôÀº ¼öÁØÀϼö·Ï, ±×°ÍÀº — °¢±â ´Ü°è´Â ±× ÀÚüÀÇ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀ» Áö´Ï¸é¼­ — ´õ ¾Æ¸§´ä´Ù. ¿ì¸® ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ °³Ã¼¼ºÀ¸·ÎºÎÅÍ Ãß»óÈ­ ±×¸®°í ÀÇÁöÀÇ Ç¥Çö¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÀÌ·± ´Ü°èµé ÁßÀÇ Çϳª¿¡ ´ëÇÑ °¨»óÀº ¿ì¸®¿¡°Ô ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿ò¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÀǽÄÀ» ºÎ¿©ÇÑ´Ù. ¸ðµç »ç¶÷µéÀº, ¼ÒÆæÇÏ¿ì¾î¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, »óÀÌÇÑ ´Ü°èµé¿¡ °üÇÑ ÀÌ·± °³³äÀ» ÀÎÁöÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ´Â ±×·³À¸·Î½á ±×µéÀÇ ÀΰÝÀ¸·ÎºÎÅÍ Àá½Ã³ª¸¶ ÇØ¹æµÉ ¼ö ÀÖ´Â ´É·ÂÀ» ¼ÒÀ¯ÇÑ´Ù. ¿¹¼úÀû õÀç´Â ÀÌ·± ´É·ÂÀ» ÃÖ°íµµÀÇ Áö´Ñ´Ù, ±×¸®°í ±×·¯¹Ç·Î ÃÖ°íÀÇ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀ» Ç¥ÇöÇÑ´Ù.
After these more prominent figures there come less original German writers, who excercised less influence, such as Hartmann, Kirchmann, Schnasse, Helmholtz to some extent, Bergmann, Jungmann [27] and a numberless host of others. Á»´õ ƯÃâÇÑ À̵é Àι°µé ´ÙÀ½À¸·Î ´ú µ¶Ã¢ÀûÀÎ µ¶ÀÏ ÀÛ°¡µéÀÌ, ±×µéÀº ´úÇÑ ¿µÇâÀ» Çà»çÇÏ¿´´Âµ¥, ÇÏÆ®¸¸, ۸£½¬¸¸, ½¬³ª½º, ÇðȦÃ÷ µîÀÌ ¾î¶²¸é¿¡¼­ ±×·¯Çϸç, º£¸£±×¸¸, À¶¸¸ ¹× ±âŸÀÇ ¼ö¸¹Àº ¹«¸®µéÀÌ ³ªÅ¸³­´Ù.
According to Hartmann, beauty is not in the external world, not in the thing in itself, nor in the soul of man, but in the semblance (Schein) produced by the artist. A thing is not beautiful in itself, but the artist transforms it into beauty. ÇÏÆ®¸¸¿¡ µû¸£¸é, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ¿ÜÀûÀÎ ¼¼»ó¿¡ ÀÖ´Â °ÍÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó »ç¹° ÀÚü¿¡ ÀÖÀ¸¸ç, »ç¶÷ÀÇ ¿µÈ¥ ¾ÈÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó ¿¹¼ú°¡°¡ ¸¸µé¾î³½ À¯»çǰ (Schein)¿¡ ÀÖ´Ù. »ç¹°Àº ±× ÀÚü·Î¼­ ¾Æ¸§´äÁö ¾Ê´Ù, ÇÏÁö¸¸ ¿¹¼ú°¡°¡ ±×°ÍÀ» ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀ¸·Î º¯¸ð½ÃŲ´Ù.
According to Schnasse, there is no beauty in the world. In nature there is only an approximation of it. Art gives what nature cannot give. Beauty is manifested in the activity of the free I, conscious of a harmony that is not in nature. ½¬³ª½º¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¼¼»ó¿¡ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ¾ø´Ù. ÀÚ¿¬¿¡´Â ¿ÀÁ÷ ±×°Í¿¡ ±ÙÁ¢ÇÑ °ÍÀÌ ÀÖ´Ù. ¿¹¼úÀº ÀÚ¿¬ÀÌ ÁÙ ¼ö ¾ø´Â °ÍÀ» ÁØ´Ù. ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ÀÚÀ¯·Î¿î, ÀÚ¿¬¿¡ ÀÖÁö ¾ÊÀº Á¶È­¸¦ ÀνÄÇÏ´Â, ³ªÀÇ È°µ¿ ¾È¿¡¼­ Ç¥ÃâµÈ´Ù.
Kirchmann wrote on practical aesthetics. According to Kirch¡©mann, there are six realms of history: the realms of (1) knowledge, (2) wealth, (3) morality, (4) religion, (5) politics and (6) beauty. Activity within this last realm is art. ۸£½¬¸¸Àº ½Ç¿ëÀû ¹ÌÇп¡ °üÇØ ½è´Ù. ۸£½¬¸¸¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¿ª»ç¿¡´Â ¿©¼¸°¡Áö ¿µ¿ªµéÀÌ ÀÖ´Ù: (1) Áö½Ä, (2) ºÎ, (3) µµ´ö, (4) Á¾±³, (5) Á¤Ä¡ ¹× (6) ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÇ ¿µ¿ªµéÀÌ´Ù. ÀÌ ¸¶Áö¸· ¿µ¿ªÀÇ È°µ¿ÀÌ ¿¹¼úÀÌ´Ù.
According to Helmholtz, who wrote on beauty in relation to music, beauty in a musical work is invariably attained only by following laws — but these laws are unknown to the artist, and therefore beauty is manifested in the artist unconsciously and cannot be subjected to analysis. Çðº¼Ã÷¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ±×´Â À½¾Ç°ú °ü·ÃÇÑ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀ» ½è´Âµ¥, À½¾Ç ÀÛǰ¿¡¼­ÀÇ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ¿©Áö¾øÀÌ ¿ÀÁ÷ ´ÙÀ½°ú °°Àº ¹ýÄ¢¿¡ ÀÇÇØ¼­ ¼ºÃëµÈ´Ù  — ÇÏÁö¸¸ ÀÌ·± ¹ýÄ¢µéÀº ¿¹¼ú°¡¿¡°Ô ¾Ë·ÁÁ® ÀÖÁö ¾ÊÀ¸¸ç, ±×·¯¹Ç·Î ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ¿¹¼ú°¡ ¾È¿¡¼­ ¹«ÀǽÄÀûÀ¸·Î Ç¥ÃâµÇ¸ç ºÐ¼®ÀÇ ´ë»óÀÌ µÉ ¼ö ¾ø´Ù.
According to Bergmann in his Über das Schöne, beauty cannot be defined objectively; beauty is perceived subjectively, and therefore the task of aesthetics is to determine what is pleasing to whom. º£¸£±×¸¸¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ±×ÀÇ ÀÛǰ Über das Schöne¿¡¼­, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº °´°üÀûÀ¸·Î Á¤ÀÇµÉ ¼ö ¾ø´Ù; ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ÁÖ°üÀûÀ¸·Î ÀνĵȴÙ, ±×¸®°í ±×·¯¹Ç·Î ¹ÌÇÐÀÇ °úÁ¦´Â ´©±¸¿¡°Ô Áñ°Å¿î °ÍÀ» °áÁ¤ÇÏ´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù.
According to Jungmann, beauty is first of all a supersensory quality; secondly, beauty produces pleasure in us through contemplation alone; thirdly, beauty is the basis of love. À¶¸¸¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ¹«¾ùº¸´Ùµµ Ãʰ¨°¢Àû ¼ºÁúÀÌ´Ù; µÑ°·Î, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ¿ÀÁ÷ °¨»óÀ» ÅëÇØ¼­ ¿ì¸®¿¡°Ô Äè¶ôÀ» ¸¸µé¾î ÁØ´Ù; ¼Â°·Î, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº »ç¶ûÀÇ ±âÃÊÀÌ´Ù.
In recent times, the aesthetic theories of the French, the English and other nations have been represented mainly by the following: ±Ù´ë¿¡ À־, ÇÁ¶û½º, ¿µ±¹ ¹× ±âŸ ±¹°¡µéÀÇ ¹ÌÇÐÀû À̷еéÀº ÁÖ·Î ´ÙÀ½°ú °°ÀÌ ´ëÇ¥µÇ¾ú´Ù:
In France, the promirient writers on aesthetics have been Cousin, Jouffroy, Pictet, Ravaisson, [28] and Lévêque. ÇÁ¶û½º¿¡¼­ ¹ÌÇп¡ °üÇÑ Æ¯ÃâÇÑ ÀÛ°¡µéÀº Äí¼Ä, ÁÖÇÁ·ÎÀÌ, ÇÇÅ×, ¶óº£¼Û ¹× ·¹º£Å©¿´´Ù.
Cousin was an eclectic and a follower of the German idealists. According to his theory, beauty always has a moral basis. Cousin refutes the proposition that art is imitation, and that the beautiful is that which is pleasing. He maintains that beauty can be defined in itself and that its essence consists in diversity and unity. Äí¼ÄÀº ÀýÃæÁÖÀÇÀÚ ¹× µ¶ÀÏ °ü³ä·ÐÀÚµéÀÇ ÃßÁ¾ÀÚ¿´´Ù. ±×ÀÇ À̷п¡ µû¸£¸é, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ¾ðÁ¦³ª µµ´öÀû Åä´ë¸¦ Áö´Ñ´Ù. Äí¼ÄÀº ¿¹¼úÀº ¸ð¹æÀ̶ó´Â °Í, ±×¸®°í ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº Áñ°Å¿î °ÍÀ̶ó´Â ÁÖÀåÀ» ¹Ý¹ÚÇÑ´Ù. ±×´Â ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ±× ÀÚü·Î¼­ Á¤ÀÇµÉ ¼ö ÀÖÀ¸¸ç ±× º»ÁúÀº ´Ù¾ç¼º ¹× ÅëÀϼº¿¡ ÀÖ´Ù°í ÁÖÀåÇÑ´Ù.
After Cousin, Jouffroy wrote on aesthetics. Jouffroy, too, was a follower of the German aestheticians, and a disciple of Cousin. In his definition, beauty is the expression of the invisible by means of natural tokens which make it manifest. The visible world is the clothing by means of which we see beauty. Äí¼Ä µÚ¿¡, ÁÖÇÁ·ÎÀ̰¡ ¹ÌÇп¡ ´ëÇØ ½è´Ù: ÁÖÇÁ·ÎÀÌ ¿ª½Ã µ¶ÀÏ ¹ÌÇÐÀÚµéÀÇ ÃßÁ¾ÀÚ¸ç Äí¼ÄÀÇ Á¦ÀÚ¿´´Ù. ±×ÀÇ Á¤ÀÇ¿¡¼­, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ½º½º·Î µå·¯³ª°Ô ÇÏ´Â ÀÚ¿¬Àû ¡ǥµéÀ» ÀÌ¿ëÇÑ º¸ÀÌÁö ¾Ê´Â °ÍÀÇ Ç¥ÇöÀÌ´Ù. º¸ÀÌÁö ¾Ê´Â ¼¼»óÀº ±×°ÍÀ¸·Î ¿ì¸®°¡ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀ» º¸´Â  ÀÇ»óÀÌ´Ù.
The Swiss writer Pictet repeated Hegel and Plato, supposing beauty to consist in the immediate and free manifestation of the divine idea, which manifests itself in sensuous images. ½ºÀ§½º ÀÛ°¡ ÇÇÅ×´Â Çì°Ö°ú ÇöóÅæÀ» ¸ð¹æÇÏ¿´°í, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ½ÅÀûÀÎ °³³äÀÇ Áï°¢ÀûÀ̸ç ÀÚÀ¯·Î¿î Ç¥Çö¿¡ ÀÖÀ¸¸ç, ÀÌ´Â °ü´ÉÀûÀÎ ¿µ»óµé·Î ³ªÅ¸³­´Ù°í ÁÖÀåÇÏ¿´´Ù.
Lévêque was a follower of Schelling and Hegel. According to him, beauty is something invisible concealed in nature. Power of spirit is the manifestation of ordered energy. ·¹º£Å©´Â ½©¸µ°ú Çì°ÖÀÇ ÃßÁ¾ÀÚ¿´´Ù. ±×¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ÀÚ¿¬¿¡ ¼û°ÜÁø º¸ÀÌÁö ¾Ê´Â ¾î¶² °ÍÀÌ´Ù. Á¤½ÅÀÇ ÈûÀº Áú¼­¸¦ °®Ãá ÈûÀÇ Ç¥ÇöÀÌ´Ù.
Similarly indefinite were the opinions on the essence of beauty expressed by the French metaphysician Ravaisson: ¡®La beauté la plus divine et principalement la plus parfaite — contient le secret.¡¯ In his opinion, beauty is the aim of the world: ¡®Le monde entier est l¡¯oeuvre d¡¯une beauté absolue, qui n¡¯est la cause des choses que par l¡¯amour qu¡¯elle met en elles.¡¯ [29] À¯»çÇÏ°Ô ºÒÈ®½ÇÇÑ °ÍÀº ÇÁ¶û½º ÇüÀÌ»óÇÐÀÚ ¶óº£¼Û¿¡ ÀÇÇØ Ç¥ÇöµÈ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÇ º»Áú¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÀǰߵéÀ̾ú´Ù: °¡Àå ½ÅÀûÀÌ¸ç ±Ùº»ÀûÀ¸·Î °¡Àå ¿Ïº®ÇÑ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ºñ¹ÐÀ» Áö´Ñ´Ù. ±×ÀÇ Àǰ߿¡¼­, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ¼¼»óÀÇ ¸ñÀûÀÌ´Ù: Àüü ¼¼»óÀº ÇϳªÀÇ Àý´ëÀû ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÇ ÀÛǰÀ̸ç, À̰ÍÀº »ç¹°µéÀÇ ¿øÀÎÀ¸·Î ¿ÀÁ÷ »ç¶ûÀ» ÅëÇØ ±×µé ¾È¿¡ ³õÀδÙ.
I have purposely left these metaphysical expressions untranslated because, foggy though the Germans may be, the French, once they have read the Germans and begun to imitate them, surpass them by far, putting together concepts of various sorts and substituting one for another without discrimination. So the French philosopher Renouvier, also discussing beauty, says: ¡®Ne craignons pas de dire qu¡¯une verité qui ne serait pas belle, n¡¯est qu¡¯unjeu logique de notre esprit et que la seule verité solide et digne de ce mm c¡¯est la beauté.¡¯ [30] ³ª´Â ÀǵµÀûÀ¸·Î À̵é ÇüÀÌ»óÇÐÀûÀΠǥÇöµéÀ» ¹ø¿ªÇÏÁö ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù ¿Ö³ÄÇϸé, ºñ·Ï µ¶ÀÏÀεéÀÌ ¸ðÈ£ÇÏÁö¸¸, ÇÁ¶û½ºÀεéÀº, ÀÏ´Ü µ¶ÀÏÀεéÀÇ °ÍÀ» ÀÐ°í¼­ ±×°ÍµéÀ» Èä³»³»±â ½ÃÀÛÇϸé, ±×µéÀ» ÈξÀ ´É°¡Çϸç, ´Ù¾çÇÑ Á¾·ùÀÇ °³³äµéÀ» ²ø¾î ¸ð¾Æ¼­ ÀÌ°Í Àú°Í ºÐº° ¾øÀÌ ¹Ù²Ù±â ¶§¹®ÀÌ´Ù. ±×·¡¼­ ÇÁ¶û½º öÇÐÀÚ ¸£´©ºñ¿¡´Â ¿ª½Ã ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀ» ³íÇϸ鼭 ¸»ÇÑ´Ù: '¾Æ¸§´äÁö ¾ÊÀº Áø¸®´Â ´ÜÁö ¸¶À½ÀÇ ³í¸®Àû °ÔÀÓÀ̶ó´Â °Í, ±×¸®°í °ß°íÇÏ¸ç ±× À̸§ÀÇ °¡Ä¡°¡ ÀÖ´Â À¯ÀÏÇÑ Áø¸® ¸¸ÀÌ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀ̶ó°í ¸»Çϱ⸦ µÎ·Á¿öÇÏÁö ¸»ÀÚ.'
Besides these idealistic aestheticians, who wrote and still write under the influence of German philosophy, in France recently Taine, Guyau, Cherbuliez, Coster [31] and Veron have influenced the understanding of art and beauty. µ¶ÀÏ Ã¶ÇÐÀÇ ¿µÇ⠾Ʒ¡¼­ ±ÛÀ» ½è°Å³ª ¾ÆÁ÷µµ ¾²´Â À̵é ÀÌ»óÁÖÀÇÀû ¹ÌÇÐÀÚµé ¿Ü¿¡µµ, ÇÁ¶û½º¿¡¼­´Â ÃÖ±Ù Å×´À, ±¸¾ß, ½¦ºÒ¸®¿¡, ÄÚ½ºÅÍ ¹× º£·ÐÀÌ ¿¹¼ú ¹× ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÇ ÀÌÇØ¿¡ ¿µÇâÀ» ¹ÌÃÆ´Ù.
According to Taine, beauty is the manifestation of the essential character of some significant idea, more perfect than that in which it is expressed in reality. Å×´À¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ¾î¶² Áß¿äÇÑ, Çö½Ç¿¡¼­ Ç¥ÇöµÇ´Â °Íº¸´Ù ´õ ¿ÏÀüÇÑ, °³³ä¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÇÙ½ÉÀû Ư¼ºÀÇ Ç¥ÃâÀÌ´Ù.
According to Guyau, beauty is not anything foreign to the object itself, is not some parasitic growth on it, but is the very blossoming of that being in which it is manifest. Art is the expression of life, reasonable and conscious, which evokes in us, on the one hand, the deepest sensations of existence, and, on the other hand, the loftiest feelings, the most exalted thoughts. Art raises man from his personal life into universal life not only by means of participation in the same ideas and beliefs, but also by means of the same feelings. ±¸¾ß¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé,¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ±× ´ë»ó ÀÚü¿¡ ÀÌÁúÀûÀÎ ¾î¶² °ÍÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï¸ç, ±×°Í¿¡ ±â»ýÇÏ¿© ÀÚ¶ó´Â °ÍÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó, ±×°ÍÀÌ ³ªÅ¸³»¾î Áö´Â ±×·± Á¸Àç ÀÚü°¡ ÇǾÀÌ´Ù. ¿¹¼úÀº »îÀÇ Ç¥ÇöÀ̰í, À̼ºÀûÀ̸ç ÀǽÄÀûÀ̸ç, ¿ì¸® ¾È¿¡¼­ ÇÑÆíÀ¸·Î Á¸Àç¿¡ ´ëÇÑ °¡Àå ±íÀº °¨°¢µéÀ̸ç, ´Ù¸¥ ÇÑÆíÀ¸·Î, °¡Àå ¼þ°íÇÑ ´À³¦µé, °¡Àå °í¾çµÈ »ç»óµéÀÌ´Ù. ¿¹¼úÀº »ç¶÷À»  µ¿ÀÏÇÑ °³³äµé ¹× ½Å³äµé¿¡ Âü¿©ÇÔ¿¡ ÀÇÇØ¼­ »Ó¸¸ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó, µ¿ÀÏÇÑ ´À³¦µé¿¡ ÀÇÇØ¼­ ±×ÀÇ °³ÀÎÀû »î¿¡¼­ º¸ÆíÀû »îÀ¸·Î ÀÏÀ¸ÄÑ ¼¼¿î´Ù.
According to Cherbuliez, art is an activity which (1) satisfies our innate love of images (appearances); (2) introduces ideas into these images; and (3) gives pleasure simultaneously to our senses, heart and reason. Beauty, according to Cherbuliez, is not a property of objects, but is an act of our soul. Beauty is an illusion. There is no absolute beauty, but we think beautiful that which we think is characteristic and harmonious. ½¦ºÒ¸®¿¡¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¿¹¼úÀº (1) Çü»ó(¿Ü¾ç)µé¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¿ì¸®ÀÇ ¼±ÃµÀû »ç¶ûÀ» ¸¸Á·½Ã۸ç; (2)°³³äµéÀÏ À̵é Çü»óµé ¼ÓÀ¸·Î µµÀÔÇϸç; (3) µ¿½Ã¿¡ ¿ì¸®ÀÇ °¨°¢µé, ¸¶À½°ú À̼º¿¡ Äè¶ôÀ» Áִ Ȱµ¿ÀÌ´Ù. ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº, ½¦ºÒ¸®¿¡¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¹°Ã¼µéÀÇ ¼ºÁúÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó, ¿ì¸® ¿µÈ¥ÀÇ ÇàÀ§ÀÌ´Ù. ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ȯ»óÀÌ´Ù. Àý´ëÀûÀÎ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ¾ø´Ù, ÇÏÁö¸¸ ¿ì¸®´Â »ý°¢Çϱ⿡ Ư¡ÀûÀ̰í Á¶È­·Î¿î °ÍÀ» ¾Æ¸§´ä´Ù°í ¿©±ä´Ù.
According to Coster, ideas of the beautiful, the good and the true are innate. These ideas illuminate our reason and are identical with God, who is goodness, truth and beauty. The idea of beauty includes within itself unity of essence, diversity of component elements, and that order which unity introduces into the diversity of life¡¯s manifestations. ÄÚ½ºÅÍ¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿ò, ¼±ÇÔ ¹× ÂüÀÇ °³³äµéÀº ¼±ÃµÀûÀÌ´Ù. ÀÌµé °³³äµéÀº ¿ì¸®ÀÇ À̼ºÀ» ºû³»°í ½Å°ú µ¿ÀÏÇϸç, ±×ºÐÀº ¼±À̸ç Áø¸®ÀÌ¸ç ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÌ´Ù. ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÇ °³³äÀº ±× ÀÚü ¾È¿¡¼­ º»ÁúÀû ÅëÀϼº, ±¸¼º ¿ä¼ÒµéÀÇ ´Ù¾ç¼º ¹× ÅëÀϼºÀÌ »îÀÇ Ç¥Ãâµé¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ´Ù¾ç¼ºÀ¸·Î µµÀÔÇÏ´Â ±×·± Áú¼­ÀÌ´Ù.
I will cite, for the sake of completeness, some of the most recent writings on art. ¿ÏÀüÀ» ±âÇϱâ À§ÇØ ¿¹¼ú¿¡ °üÇÑ ÃÖ±ÙÀÇ ÀÛǰµé ¸î °¡Áö¸¦ ÀοëÇϰڴÙ.
La psychologie du beau et de l¡¯art, by Mario Pilo. [32] According to Mario Pilo, beauty is the product of our physical sensations. The aim of art is pleasure, but for some reason this pleasure must be regarded as highly moral. ¸¶¸®¿À ÇÊ·ÎÀÇ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿ò°ú ¹ÌÀÇ ½É¸® (La psychologie du beau et de l¡¯art). ¸¶¸®¿À Çʷο¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ¿ì¸®ÀÇ À°Ã¼Àû °¨°¢µéÀÇ »ê¹°ÀÌ´Ù. ¿¹¼úÀÇ ¸ñÀûÀº Äè¶ôÀÌ´Ù, ÇÏÁö¸¸ ¾î¶² ÀÌÀ¯·Î ÀÌ Äè¶ôÀº ¸Å¿ì µµ´öÀûÀ¸·Î ¿©°ÜÁ®¾ß ÇÑ´Ù.
Then there are the Essais sur l¡¯art contemporain of H. Fierens Gevaert, [33] according to whom art depends on its connections with the past and on the religious ideal that an artist of the present sets for himself, lending his work the form of his own individuality. ´ÙÀ½À¸·Î ÇÇ·»½º °Ô¹Ù¸£Æ®ÀÇ Çö´ë ¿¹¼ú ¼Ò·Ð(Essais sur l¡¯art contemporain)À¸·Î, ±×¿¡ ÀÇÇÏ¸é ¿¹¼úÀº ±×°ÍÀÇ °ú°Å¿ÍÀÇ °ü°èµé ¹× ÇöÀçÀÇ ¿¹¼ú°¡°¡ Àڽſ¡°Ô ¼³Á¤ÇÑ Á¾±³Àû ÀÌ»ó¿¡ ÀÇÁ¸Çϸç, ±×ÀÇ ÀÛǰÀº ÀÚ±â ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ °³¼ºÀÇ ¸ð½ÀÀ» ¶ì°Ô µÈ´Ù.
Then there is Sar Peladan¡¯s L¡¯art idéaliste et mystique. According to Peladan, beauty is one of the expressions of God. ¡®Il n¡¯y a pas d¡¯autre Realité que Dieu, il n¡¯y a pas d¡¯autre Verité que Dieu, il n¡¯y a pas d¡¯autre Beauté que Dieu.¡¯ [34] This is a very fantastic and ignorant book, but characteristic in its propositions and in the modicum of success it is having among French youth. ´ÙÀ½À¸·Î »ç¸£ Æç¶ó´çÀÇ ÀÌ»óÁÖÀÇ ¹× ½ÅºñÁÖÀÇ ¿¹¼ú(L¡¯art idéaliste et mystique)ÀÌ ÀÖ´Ù. Æç¶ó´ç¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ½ÅÀÇ Ç¥Çöµé ÁßÀÇ Çϳª´Ù. ½Å ÀÌ¿ÜÀÇ Çö½ÇÀº ¾ø´Ù, ½Å ÀÌ¿ÜÀÇ Áø¸®´Â ¾ø´Ù, ½Å ÀÌ¿ÜÀÇ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ¾ø´Ù. À̰ÍÀº ¸Å¿ì ȯ»óÀûÀÌ¸ç ¹«ÁöÇÑ Ã¥ÀÌÁö¸¸, ±× ¸íÁ¦µéÀº Ư¡ÀûÀ̸ç ÇÁ¶û½º ÀþÀºÀÌµé »çÀÌ¿¡¼­ ¾à°£ÀÇ ¼º°øÀ» °ÅµÎ°í ÀÖ´Ù.
Such are all the aesthetic systems spread in France recently, to which Véron¡¯s book, L¡¯esthétique, stands as an exception in its clarity and intelligence. Though it does not give a precise definition of art, it at least removes from aesthetics the foggy concept of absolute beauty. À̰͵éÀº ¸ðµÎ ÃÖ±Ù¿¡ ÇÁ¶û½º¿¡ ÆÛÁ® ÀÖ´Â ¹ÌÇРü°èµé·Î, º£·ÐÀÇ Ã¥, ¹ÌÇÐ(L¡¯esthétique)Àº ±× ¸í·á¼º ¹× Áö¼º¿¡¼­ À̵鿡¼­ ¿¹¿ÜÀûÀÌ´Ù. ºñ·Ï ±× Ã¥ÀÌ ¿¹¼ú¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Á¤È®ÇÑ Á¤ÀÇ´Â ³»¸®Áö ¾ÊÁö¸¸, Àû¾îµµ ¹ÌÇп¡¼­ Àý´ëÀû ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀ̶õ ¸ðÈ£ÇÑ °³³äÀ» Á¦°ÅÇÑ´Ù.
According to Veron, art is the manifestation of feelings (émotion), conveyed externally by a combination of lines, forms, colours, or a sequence of gestures, sounds, or words subject to certain rhythms. º£·Ð¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¿¹¼úÀº °¨Á¤µé(émotion)ÀÇ Ç¥Ãâ·Î¼­, ¼±µé, ¸ð¾çµé, »ö»óµé ¶Ç´Â ¿¬¼ÓÀûÀÎ ¸öÁþµé, ¼Ò¸®µé, ¶Ç´Â ƯÁ¤ÇÑ ¸®µë¿¡ ±Í¼ÓµÈ ´Ü¾îµéÀÇ Á¶ÇÕ¿¡ ÀÇÇØ ¿ÜÀûÀ¸·Î Àü´ÞµÈ´Ù.
In England during this time, writers on aesthetics define beauty more and more frequently not by its proper quality, but by taste, and the question of beauty is replaced by the question of taste. ÀÌ ½Ã±â µ¿¾ÈÀÇ ¿µ±¹¿¡¼±, ¹ÌÇп¡ °üÇÑ ÀÛ°¡µéÀº ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀ» Á¡Á¡´õ ±×°Í¿¡ ÀûÀýÇÑ ¼ºÁú¿¡ ÀÇÇØ¼­°¡ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó, ÃëÇâ¿¡ ÀÇÇØ¼­ Á¤ÀÇÇϸç, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÇ ¹®Á¦´Â ÃëÇâÀÇ ¹®Á¦·Î ´ëüµÈ´Ù.
After Reid, [35] who recognized beauty as being dependent solely on the contemplator, Alison, in his book On the Nature and Principles of Taste (1790), proves the same thing. The same was also asserted by Erasmus Darwin, grandfather of the famous Charles. He says that we find beautiful that which in our view is connected with what we love. Along the same lines is Richard Knight¡¯s book, An Analytical Inquiry into the Principles of Taste (1805). ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ¿ÀÁ÷ °üÂûÀÚ¿¡ ÀÇÁ¸ÇÑ´Ù°í ÀνÄÇÏ´Â ·¹À̵忡 À̾, ¾Ë¸®½¼Àº,±×ÀÇ Ã¥ ÃëÇâÀÇ º»Áú°ú ¿ø¸®µé (1790)¿¡¼­, µ¿ÀÏÇÑ °ÍÀ» Áõ¸íÇϰí ÀÖ´Ù. µ¿ÀÏÇÑ ³»¿ëÀº À¯¸íÇÑ Âû½º ´Ù¾ÆÀ©ÀÇ Á¶ºÎÀÎ ¿¡¶ó½º¹«½º ´ÙÀ©¿¡ ÀÇÇØ¼­µµ ÁÖâµÇ¾ú´Ù. ±×´Â ¿ì¸®°¡ ¿ì¸®ÀÇ °üÁ¡¿¡¼­ ¿ì¸®°¡ »ç¶ûÇÏ´Â °Í°ú ¿¬°üµÈ °ÍÀ» ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿î °ÍÀ¸·Î º»´Ù°í ¸»ÇÑ´Ù. ¸®Ã³µå ³ªÀÌÆ®ÀÇ Ã¥, ÃëÇâÀÇ ¿ø¸®µé¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ºÐ¼®Àû ¿¬±¸(1805)µµ µ¿ÀÏ ¼±»ó¿¡ ÀÖ´Ù. .
Along the same lines are the majority of English aesthetic theories. In England, at the beginning of this century, the prominent writers on aesthetics were Charles Darwin (to some extent), Spencer, Todhunter, Morley, Grant Alien, Ker and Knight. [36] µ¿ÀÏ ¼±»óµé¿¡´Â ´ë´Ù¼ö ¿µ±¹ ¹ÌÇÐ À̷еéÀÌ ÀÖ´Ù. ¿µ±¹¿¡¼±, ÀÌ ¼¼±âÀÇ ÃÊâ±â¿¡, ¹ÌÇп¡ °üÇÑ ¶Ù¾î³­ ÀÛ°¡µéÀº, Âû½º ´Ù¾ÆÀ©(¾î´À Á¤µµ±îÁö´Â), ½ºÆæ¼­, ÅäµåÇåÅÍ, ¸ô¸®, ±×·£Æ® ¿¤¸®¾ð, Äɸ£ ¹× ³ªÀÌÆ®°¡ ÀÖ´Ù.
According to Charles Darwin in his Descent of Man (1871), beauty is a feeling proper not only to man but to animals, and therefore to the ancestors of man as well. Birds adorn their nests and appreciate the beauty of their mates. Beauty has influence on marriage. Beauty includes the notion of differing characters. The art of music originated in the calling of male to female. Àú¼­ ÀηùÀÇ À¯·¡(1871)¿¡¼­ Âû½º ´Ù¾ÆÀ©¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº »ç¶÷¿¡°Ô »Ó¸¸ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó µ¿¹°µé¿¡°Ô, ±×¸®°í ±×·¯¹Ç·Î ÀηùÀÇ ¼±Á¶µé¿¡°Ôµµ °íÀ¯ÇÑ ´À³¦ÀÌ´Ù. »õµéÀº ±×µéÀÇ µÕÁöµéÀ» Ä¡ÀåÇÏ°í ±×µé ¦ÀÇ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀ» ÀνÄÇÑ´Ù. ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº È¥Àο¡ ¿µÇâÀ» ¹ÌÄ£´Ù. ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ´Ù¸¥ ¼º°ÝÀÇ °ü³äµéÀ» Æ÷ÇÔÇÑ´Ù. À½¾Ç ¿¹¼úÀº ¼öÄÆÀÌ ¾ÏÄÆÀ» ºÎ¸§¿¡¼­ À¯·¡µÇ¾ú´Ù.
According to Spencer, the origin of art is play — a thought already expressed by Schiller. In the lower animals, all the energy of life is spent on maintaining and continuing life itself; but in man, after these needs have been satisfied, there remains a surplus of energy. It is this surplus that is used in play, which passes into art. Play is a likeness of real action; art is the same. ½ºÆæ¼­¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¿¹¼úÀÇ ±â¿øÀº ³îÀÌ — ½¯·¯¿¡ ÀÇÇØ ÀÌ¹Ì Ç¥ÇöµÇ¾ú´ø »ç»ó — ÀÌ´Ù. ÇÏµî µ¿¹°µé¿¡¼­, »îÀÇ ¸ðµç ÈûÀº »ý¸í »çü¸¦ À¯ÁöÇϰí Áö¼Ó½ÃÅ´¿¡ »ç¿ëµÈ´Ù; »ç¶÷¿¡°Ô´Â, ÀÌ·± ÇÊ¿äµéÀÌ ¸¸Á·µÇ°í ³ª¸é, ¿©ºÐÀÇ ÈûÀÌ ³²¾Æ ÀÖ´Ù. ÀÌ ¿©ºÐÀÌ ¹Ù·Î ³îÀÌ¿¡ »ç¿ëµÇ´Â °ÍÀ̸ç, ¿¹¼ú·Î ½ÂÈ­µÈ´Ù. ³îÀÌ´Â ½ÇÁ¦Àû ÇàÀ§¸¦ ¸ð¹æÇÑ °ÍÀÌ´Ù; ¿¹¼úµµ ¸¶Âù°¡Áö´Ù.
The sources of aesthetic pleasure are: (1) that which exercises the senses (sight, or some other) in the fullest way, with least detriment and greatest exercise; (2) that which gives the greatest variety of evoked feelings; and (3) the combination of the first two with the idea they produce. ¹ÌÇÐÀû Áñ°Å¿òÀÇ ±Ù¿øµéÀº: (1) °¨°¢µéÀ» ÃÖ°íµµ·Î Ȱ¿ëÇÏ´Â °Í, ÃÖ¼ÒÀÇ Àå¾Ö¿Í ÃÖ´ëÀÇ È°¿ë; (2) ÃÖ´ë·Î ´Ù¾çÇÏ°Ô °í¾çµÈ ´À³¦µéÀ» ÁÖ´Â °Í; (3) ¾ÕÀÇ µÎ °¡Áö¿Í ±×°ÍµéÀÌ ¸¸µé¾î ³»´Â °³³äµéÀÇ Á¶ÇÕÀÌ´Ù.
According to Todhunter, in The Theory of the Beautiful (1872), beauty is infinite attractiveness, which we perceive both through reason and through the enthusiasm of love. The recognition of beauty as beauty depends on taste and can in no way be defined. The only approximation to a definition is the greater cultivation of people; but what this cultivation is never gets defined. The essence of art, of that which touches us by means of lines, colours, sounds, words, is a product, not of blind forces, but of forces that are reasonable, that strive, aiding one another, for a reasonable aim. Beauty is a reconciliation of contraries. ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÇ ÀÌ·Ð(1872)¿¡¼­ ÅäµåÇåÅÍ¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ¹«ÇÑÇÑ ¸Å·ÂÀ̸ç, ¿ì¸®´Â À̰ÍÀ» À̼º ¹× »ç¶ûÀÇ Á¤¿­À» ÅëÇØ¼­ ´À³¤´Ù. ¹Ì·Î¼­ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÇ ÀνÄÀº ÃëÇâ¿¡ ÀÇÁ¸ÇÏ¸ç °áÄÚ Á¤ÀÇµÉ ¼ö ¾ø´Ù. ÀÏÁ¾ÀÇ Á¤ÀÇ¿¡ ´ëÇÑ À¯ÀÏÇÑ Á¢±ÙÀº »ç¶÷µé¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ´õ ³ªÀº ±³¾çÀÌ´Ù; ÇÏÁö¸¸ ÀÌ ±³¾çÀÌ ¹«¾ùÀÎÁö´Â °áÄÚ Á¤ÀǵÇÁö ¾Ê´Â´Ù. ¿¹¼úÀÇ, Áï, ¼±µé, »ö»óµé, ¼Ò¸®µé, ´Ü¾îµé·Î¼­ ¿ì¸®¸¦ °¨µ¿½ÃŰ´Â °ÍÀÇ º»ÁúÀº, ¸Í¸ñÀû Èû¿¡ ÀÇÇØ¼­°¡ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó, ÇÕ¸®ÀûÀ̸ç, ÇÕ¸®ÀûÀÎ ¸ñÀûÀ» À§ÇØ ¼­·Î¸¦ µµ¿ì¸ç ¾Ö¾²´Â Èû¿¡ ÀÇÇÑ »ê¹°ÀÌ´Ù. ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ¸ð¼øµéÀÇ Á¶È­ÀÌ´Ù.
According to Morley, in Sermons Preached Before the University of Oxford (1876), beauty is found in man¡¯s soul. Nature speaks to us of the divine, and art is the hieroglyphic expression of the divine. ¿Á½ºÆ÷µå ´ëÇп¡¼­ÀÇ ¼³±³µé(1876)¿¡¼­ ¸ô¸®¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº »ç¶÷ÀÇ ¿µÈ¥¿¡¼­ ¹ß°ßµÈ´Ù. ÀÚ¿¬Àº ¿ì¸®¿¡°Ô ½Å¼º¿¡ ´ëÇØ ¸»ÇØÁÖ°í, ¿¹¼úÀº ½Å¼ºÀÇ »óÇü¹®ÀÚÀû Ç¥ÇöÀÌ´Ù.
According to Grant Alien, a follower of Spencer, in his Psychological Aesthetics (1877), beauty is of physical origin. He says that aesthetic pleasure originates in the contemplation of the beautiful, and the idea of the beautiful is the result of a physiological process. Play is the beginning of art; having a surplus of physical force, man gives himself to play; having a surplus of receptive force, man gives himself to the activity of art. The beautiful is that which affords the greatest stimulation with the least expenditure. Differing evaluations of the beautiful come from taste. Taste can be cultivated. One must trust in the judgement of ¡®the finest nurtured and most discriminative men¡¯ — that is, men capable of a better evaluation. These people shape the taste of the next generation. ÀÚ½ÅÀÇ ÀÛǰ, ½É¸®ÇÐÀû ¹ÌÇÐ(1877)¿¡¼­, ½ºÆæ¼­ÀÇ ÃßÁ¾ÀÚÀÎ ±×·£Æ® ¿¤¸®¾ð¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ½ÅüÀû ±Ù¿ø¿¡¼­ À¯·¡µÈ´Ù. ±×´Â ¹ÌÇÐÀû Äè¶ôÀº ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿î °Í¿¡ ´ëÇÑ °¨»ó¿¡¼­ À¯·¡Çϸç, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿î °ÍÀÇ °³³äÀº ½É¸®ÇÐÀû °úÁ¤ÀÇ °á°úÀÌ´Ù. ³îÀÌ´Â ¿¹¼úÀÇ ½ÃÀÛÀ̸ç, ¿©ºÐÀÇ ½ÅüÀû ÈûÀ» °¡ÁüÀ¸·Î½á, »ç¶÷Àº ÀÚ½ÅÀ» ³îÀÌ¿¡ ¸Ã±ä´Ù; ¿©ºÐÀÇ ¼ö¿ëÀû ÈûÀ» Áö´Ï¸é¼­, »ç¶÷Àº ¿¹¼úÀÇ È°µ¿¿¡ ÀÚ½ÅÀ» ¸Ã±ä´Ù. ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº ÃÖ¼ÒÀÇ ºñ¿ëÀ¸·Î ÃÖ´ëÀÇ ÀÚ±ØÀ» Á¦°øÇÏ´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿ò¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ´Ù¸¥ Æò°¡µéÀº ÃëÇâ¿¡¼­ ¿Â´Ù. ÃëÇâÀº ¹è¾çµÉ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù. ¿ì¸®´Â '°¡Àå ÈǸ¢È÷ ¾çÀ°µÈ °¡Àå Æ¯ÀÌÇÑ »ç¶÷µé'ÀÇ ÆÇ´ÜÀ» ½Å·ÚÇØ¾ß ÇÑ´Ù — ´Ù½Ã ¸»Çϸé, »ç¶÷µéÀº ´õ ³ªÀº Æò°¡¸¦ ¹ÞÀ» ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù. ÀÌ »ç¶÷µéÀº ´ÙÀ½ ¼¼´ëÀÇ ÃëÇâÀ» ¸¸µç´Ù.
According to Ker, in his Essay on the Philosophy of Art (1883), beauty gives us the means fully to comprehend the objective world without that reference to other parts of the world which is indispensable for science. And therefore art abolishes the contradiction between unity and multiplicity, between law and phenomenon, between subject and object, uniting them in one. Art is the manifestation and affirmation of freedom, because it is free of the darkness and incomprehensibility of finite things. Äɸ£¿¡ µû¸£¸é, ±×ÀÇ Àú¼­ ¿¹¼úÀÇ Ã¶Çп¡ °üÇÑ ¼Ò·Ð(1883)¿¡¼­, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº °úÇп¡ ¾ø¾î¼­´Â ¾ÈµÉ ¼¼°èÀÇ ´Ù¸¥ ºÎºÐµé¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÂüÁ¶ ¾ø´Â °´°üÀûÀÎ ¼¼°è¸¦ ÃæºÐÈ÷ ÀÌÇØÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖµµ·Ï ÇÏ´Â ¼ö´ÜÀ» ¿ì¸®¿¡°Ô Á¦°øÇÑ´Ù. ±×·¯¹Ç·Î ¿¹¼úÀº ÅëÀϼº°ú ´Ù¾ç¼º »çÀÌÀÇ, ¹ýÄ¢°ú Çö»ó »çÀÌÀÇ, ÁÖü¿Í °´Ã¼ »çÀÌÀÇ, ¹Ý¸ñÀ» ÆóÁöÇϸç, ±×µéÀ» Çϳª·Î ¹­´Â´Ù. ¿¹¼úÀº ÀÚÀ¯ÀÇ Ç¥ÃâÀ̸ç È®ÀÎÀÌ´Ù, ¿Ö³ÄÇÏ¸é ±×°ÍÀº ¾îµÎ¿ò°ú À¯ÇÑÇÑ »ç¹°µé¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ºÒ°¡Çؼº¿¡¼­ ÀÚÀ¯·Ó±â ¶§¹®ÀÌ´Ù.
According to W. A. Knight (Philosophy of the Beautiful, II, 1893), beauty is, as with Schelling, the union of object and subject; it is the extraction from nature of that which is proper to man, and the consciousness in oneself of that which is common to the whole of nature. ³ªÀÌÆ® (¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÇ Ã¶ÇÐ, II, 1893)¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº, ½©¸µ°ú ¸¶Âù°¡Áö·Î, °´Ã¼¿Í ÁÖüÀÇ °áÇÕÀÌ´Ù; ±×°ÍÀº »ç¶÷¿¡°Ô °íÀ¯ÇÑ °ÍÀÎÀÇ ÀÚ¿¬À¸·ÎºÎÅÍ ÃßÃâ¹°À̸ç, Àüü ÀÚ¿¬¿¡ °øÅëÀûÀÎ °ÍÀÎ ÀÚü ¾È¿¡¼­ÀÇ ÀǽÄÀÌ´Ù.
The judgements of beauty and art cited here are far from exhausting all that has been written on the subject. Moreover, new writers on aesthetics appear every day, and the judgements of these new writers contain the same strange, spellbound obscurity and contradictoriness in their definition of beauty. Some continue by inertia the mystical aesthetics of Baumgarten and Hegel, with various modifications; others transfer the question to the realm of the subjective and discover that the principles of the beautiful are a matter of taste; still others —  aestheticians of the very latest formation — discover the origin of beauty in the laws of physiology; a fourth group, finally, considers the question quite independently of the notion of beauty. Thus, according to Sully, [37] in Studies in Psychology and Aesthetics (1874), the concept of beauty is completely abolished, since art, in Sully¡¯s definition, is the production of an abiding or transient object capable of giving active enjoyment and a pleasurable impression to a certain number of spectators or listeners, regardless of the advantage to be derived from it. ¿©±â ÀοëµÈ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿ò°ú ¿¹¼ú¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ÆÇ´ÜÀº °áÄÚ ÁÖÁ¦¿¡ °üÇØ ±â·ÏµÇ¾îÁø ¸ðµç °ÍÀ» ´ëº¯ÇÏ´Â °ÍÀº ¾Æ´Ï´Ù. ´õ¿íÀÌ, ¹ÌÇп¡ °üÇÑ »õ·Î¿î ÀÛ°¡µéÀÌ ³ª³¯ÀÌ µîÀåÇϸç, ÀÌµé »õ·Î¿î ÀÛ°¡µéÀÇ ÆÇ´ÜµéÀº ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿ò¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ±×µéÀÇ Á¤ÀÇ¿¡¼­ Çϳª°°ÀÌ ÀÌ»óÇÏ°í ¸¶¹ý¿¡ Ȧ¸° °Í °°Àº ¸ðÈ£ÇÔ ¹× ¸ð¼ø¼ºÀ» ´ã°í ÀÖ´Ù. ¾î¶² À̵éÀº ¹«±â·ÂÇϰԵµ, ¿©±âÀú±â ¼öÁ¤Çϸ鼭, ¹Ù¿ò°¡¸£ÅÙ ¹× Çì°ÖÀÇ ½ÅºñÁÖÀÇÀû ¹ÌÇÐÀ» °è¼ÓÇϸç, ´Ù¸¥ »ç¶÷µéÀº ¹®Á¦¸¦ ÁÖ°üÀûÀÎ ¿µ¿ªÀ¸·Î ¹Ì·ç¸ç ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÇ ¿ø¸®µéÀº ÃëÇâÀÇ ¹®Á¦¶ó°í ÇÑ´Ù; ¶Ç ´Ù¸¥ »ç¶÷µé — °¡Àå ÃÖ±Ù µîÀåÇÑ ¹ÌÇÐÀÚµé — Àº ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÇ ±â¿øÀ» »ý¸®ÇÐÀÇ ¹ýÄ¢µé¿¡¼­ ¹ß°ßÇÑ´Ù; ¸¶Áö¸·À¸·Î, ³× ¹øÂ° ¹«¸®´Â ¹®Á¦¸¦ ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀ̶õ °ü³ä¿¡¼­ »ó´çÈ÷ ºÐ¸®ÇÏ¿© °í·ÁÇÑ´Ù. ±×¸®ÇÏ¿©, ¼ú¸®¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ½É¸®Çаú ¹ÌÇп¡ °üÇÑ ¿¬±¸µé(1874)¿¡¼­, ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀÇ °³³äÀº ¿ÏÀüÈ÷ ÆóÁöµÈ´Ù, ¿Ö³ÄÇÏ¸é ¾Æ¸§´Ù¿òÀº, ¼ú¸®ÀÇ Á¤ÀÇ¿¡ ÀÇÇϸé, ÀÏÁ¤ÇÑ ¼ýÀÚÀÇ ±¸°æ²Ûµé ¶Ç´Â ûÁߵ鿡°Ô Àû±ØÀû Áñ°Å¿ò ¹× Äè¶ôÀû ÀλóÀ» ÁÙ ¼ö ÀÖ´Â, ±×·ÎºÎÅÍ µµÃâµÉ ¼ö ÀÖ´Â ÀÌÀÍ¿¡ °ü°è¾øÀÌ, Áö¼ÓÀû ¶Ç´Â ÀáÁ¤Àû ¹°Ã¼ÀÇ »ê¹°À̱⠶§¹®ÀÌ´Ù.
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[Home] [Up] [Contents] [Preface] [Bibliographical Note] [A Note on the Text] [WHAT IS ART?] I  II  III  IV  V  VI  VII  VIII  IX  X  XI  XII  XIII  XIV  XV  XVI  XVII  XVIII  XIX  XX [CONCLUSION] [Appendix I] [Appendix II] [Notes]


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