INTRODUCTION

The Works of Henry David Thoreau

• Introduction
• Early life
• Friendship with Emerson.
• Literary career
• Move to Walden Pond
• Later life and works.
• Assessment.
• Major Works
• BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Introduction

Thoreau, Henry David (b. July 12, 1817, Concord, Mass., U.S.--d. May 6, 1862, Concord), American essayist, poet, and practical philosopher, renowned for having lived the doctrines of Transcendentalism as recorded in his masterwork, Walden (1854), and for having been a vigorous advocate of civil liberties, as evidenced in the essay "Civil Disobedience" (1849).

소로 (Henry David Thoreau). 1817. 7. 12 미국 매사추세츠 콩코드~1862. 5. 6 콩코드. 미국의 수필가, 시인, 실천적 철학자. 걸작 〈월든：숲속의 생활 Walden：or, Life in the Woods〉(1854)에서 다룬 초월주의 원칙대로 살면서 평론 〈시민의 반항 Civil Disobedience〉(1849)에서 주장한 대로 시민의 자유를 열렬히 옹호한 것으로 유명하다.

Early life

Thoreau was born in 1817 in Concord, Mass. Though his family moved the next year, they returned in 1823, not to move again. Even when he grew ambivalent about the village after reaching manhood, it remained his world, for he never grew ambivalent about its lovely setting of woodlands, streams, and meadows. Little distinguished his family. He was the third child of a feckless small businessman named John Thoreau and his bustling, talkative wife, Cynthia Dunbar Thoreau. His parents sent him in 1828 to Concord Academy. There he impressed his teachers and so was permitted to prepare for college. Upon graduating from the academy, he entered Harvard in 1833. At Harvard he was a good student, but he was indifferent to the rank system and preferred to use the school library for his own purposes. Graduating in the middle ranks of the class of 1837, he searched for a teaching job and secured one in Concord at his old grammar school. But he was no disciplinarian, and he resigned after two shaky weeks, after which he worked for his father in the family pencil-making business. In June 1838 he started a small school with the help of his brother John. Despite its progressive nature, it lasted for three years, until John fell ill.

초기생애

소로는 1817년 매사추세츠 주 콩코드에서 태어났다. 그의 가족은 이듬해 이사를 했다가 1823년 콩코드로 돌아와 그곳에 정착했다. 그가 후에 성인이 되어 마을에 대해 애증의 감정을 느꼈다고 하나 그곳의 아름다운 숲, 계곡과 초지에 대해서는 변함없는 애정을 간직했기 때문에 그곳은 여전히 그가 속한 세계였다. 그의 집안은 그리 대단한 가문은 아니었다. 그는 무능한 소규모 사업가 존 소로와 부산하고 수다스런 신시아 던바의 셋째 아이로 태어났다. 1828년 부모는 그를 콩코드 아카데미에 보냈다. 그에게 좋은 인상을 받은 그곳의 교사들 덕분에 그는 대입 준비를 할 수 있었다. 아카데미를 졸업하고 1833년 하버드대학교에 입학한 그는 모범생이었지만 학점에는 무관심했으며, 도서관에서 자기가 원하는 책을 읽는 것을 좋아했다. 1837년 중간 정도의 성적으로 졸업한 뒤 교직을 지원해서 이전에 다녔던 콩코드의 그래머 스쿨에 자리를 얻었다. 그러나 엄격한 교사 역할이 맞지 않아 고민 끝에 2주일 후 그만두었고, 가업인 연필제조업을 꾸려가던 아버지를 돕게 되었다. 1838년 6월 형 존의 도움으로 작은 학교를 세웠는데, 이 학교는 진보적 성격에도 불구하고 3년 동안이나 유지되다가 존이 병에 걸리는 바람에 문을 닫았다.

A canoe trip that he and John took along the Concord and Merrimack rivers in 1839 confirmed him in the opinion that he ought to be not a schoolmaster but a poet of nature. As the 1840s opened, he took up the profession of poet. He struggled to stay in it and succeeded throughout the decade, only to falter in the 1850s.

1839년 소로는 존과 함께 콩코드 강과 메리맥 강을 따라 카누 여행을 하면서 자신은 교사보다 자연시인이 더 어울린다는 확신을 얻게 되었다. 1840년대에 접어들면서 그는 시인의 길을 택했다. 시인으로 남기 위해 부단히 애를 쓴 끝에 1840년대를 성공적으로 보냈으나 1850년대에는 좀 주춤해졌다.

Friendship with Emerson.

Sheer chance made his entrance to writing easier, for he came under the benign influence of the essayist and poet Ralph Waldo Emerson, who had settled in Concord during Thoreau's sophomore year at Harvard. By the autumn of 1837, they were becoming friends. Emerson sensed in Thoreau a true disciple--that is, one with so much Emersonian self-reliance that he would still be his own man. Thoreau saw in Emerson a guide, a father, and a friend.

에머슨과의 우정

소로가 쉽게 시인의 길로 들어서게 된 것은 단순한 우연으로, 그가 하버드대학교 2학년에 재학중일 때 콩코드에 정착한 수필가이자 시인인 랠프 월도 에머슨의 친절한 지도 덕분이었다. 1837년 가을 무렵 그들은 친구가 되었다. 에머슨은 소로에게서 에머슨식의 자기 신뢰를 지닌 진정한 제자를 찾아냈고, 소로는 그로부터 지도자·아버지·친구의 모습을 발견했다. 

With his magnetism Emerson attracted others to Concord. Out of their heady speculations and affirmatives came New England Transcendentalism. In retrospect it was one of the most significant literary movements of 19th-century America, with at least two authors of world stature, Thoreau and Emerson, to its credit. Essentially it combined romanticism with reform. It celebrated the individual rather than the masses, emotion rather than reason, nature rather than man. It conceded that there were two ways of knowing, through the senses and through intuition, but asserted that intuition transcended tuition. Similarly, it conceded that matter and spirit both existed. It asserted, however, that the reality of spirit transcended the reality of matter. It strove for reform yet insisted that reform begin with the individual, not the group or organization. (see also American Renaissance)

Literary career

In Emerson's company Thoreau's hope of becoming a poet looked not only proper but feasible. Late in 1837, at Emerson's suggestion, he began keeping a journal that covered thousands of pages before he scrawled the final entry two months before his death. He soon polished some of his old college essays and composed new and better ones as well. He wrote some poems--a good many, in fact--for several years. Captained by Emerson, the Transcendentalists started a magazine, The Dial; the inaugural issue, dated July 1840, carried Thoreau's poem "Sympathy" and his scrap of essay on the Roman poet Aulus Persius Flaccus.

작품활동

시인이 되고자 한 소로의 희망은 에머슨과의 관계 덕분에 적절할 뿐 아니라 가능성도 있어 보였다. 1837년 후반부터 에머슨의 제안에 따라 일기를 쓰기 시작했는데, 죽기 2개월 전까지 계속 쓴 분량은 수천 페이지에 이른다. 대학시절에 썼던 몇 편의 글을 다듬고 더욱 훌륭한 새 글도 썼으며 수년에 걸쳐 몇 편의 시도 썼다. 에머슨의 지도 아래 초월주의자들은 잡지 〈다이얼 The Dial〉을 창간했는데, 1840년 7월에 발행한 창간호에 소로의 시 〈연민 Sympathy〉과 로마 시인 아울루스 페르시우스 플라쿠스에 대한 평론 발췌문이 실렸다. 

The Dial published more of Thoreau's poems and then, in July 1842, the first of his outdoor essays, "Natural History of Massachusetts." Though disguised as a book review, it showed that a nature writer of distinction was in the making. Then followed more lyrics, and fine ones, such as "To the Maiden in the East." There followed another nature essay, remarkably felicitous, "A Winter Walk." The Dial died with the issue of April 1844. Before it expired, however, it let Thoreau publish a richer variety of writing than any other magazine ever would.

In 1840 he fell in love with and proposed marriage to an attractive visitor to Concord named Ellen Sewall. She accepted his proposal but then immediately broke off the engagement at the insistence of her parents. Thoreau remained a bachelor for life. During two periods, 1841-43 and 1847-48, he stayed mostly at the Emersons' house.

Yet in spite of Emerson's hospitality and friendship, Thoreau grew restless; his condition was accentuated by grief over the death in January 1842 of his brother John, who died of lockjaw after cutting his finger. In 1842 he stayed on Staten Island as tutor in the household of Emerson's brother, William, while trying to cultivate the New York literary market. His literary activities went indifferently, however, and the effort to conquer New York failed. Confirmed in his distaste for city life and disappointed by his failure, he returned home to Concord in late 1843.

  그러나 에머슨의 보살핌과 우정에도 불구하고 소로는 점차 안정을 잃었고, 1842년 1월 형 존이 손가락을 자른 뒤 발병한 파상풍으로 사망하자 그 슬픔 때문에 상태가 악화되었다. 1842년 스테이튼 섬에서 에머슨의 형 윌리엄 집에 가정교사로 머무르면서 뉴욕 문학시장을 개척하려고 했다. 하지만 그의 문학활동에 대한 반응은 냉담했고, 뉴욕을 정복하려던 노력은 좌절되었다. 도시생활에 염증을 느끼고 계속된 실패에 좌절한 그는 1843년 후반에 고향 콩코드로 돌아왔다.

Move to Walden Pond

Back he went to making pencils and grinding graphite. By early 1845 he felt more restless than ever, until he decided to take up an idea of a Harvard classmate who had once built a waterside hut in which one could loaf or read. In the spring he picked a spot by Walden Pond, a small glacial lake located 2 miles (3 km) south of Concord on land Emerson owned.

월든 호반생활

소로는 다시 연필과 연필심 제조업으로 돌아갔다. 1845년초 무력감이 더욱 심해지자, 그전에 쉬기도 하고 독서도 할 수 있는 움막을 강가에 지었던 한 하버드대학교 동창생의 아이디어를 실현하기로 결심했다. 그해 봄 콩코드에서 남쪽으로 3.2㎞ 떨어진 얼음으로 덮인 작은 월든 호숫가에서 에머슨 소유의 마땅한 자리를 찾아냈다.

Early in the spring of 1845, Thoreau, then 27 years old, began to chop down tall pines with which to build the foundations of his home on the shores of Walden Pond. From the outset the move gave him profound satisfaction. Once settled, he restricted his diet for the most part to what fruit and vegetables he found growing wild and the beans he planted and hoed. When not busy weeding his bean rows and trying to protect them from hungry woodchucks, or occupied with fishing, swimming, or rowing, he spent long hours observing and recording the local flora and fauna, reading, and writing A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers (1849) and making entries in his journals, which later he would polish and include in Walden. Much time, too, was spent in meditation.

  1845년 이른 봄 27세가 된 소로는 월든 호숫가의 큰 소나무들을 베어 그 나무로 집의 기초를 세웠다. 처음부터 그는 이곳으로 이사하는 것에 몹시 만족했다. 일단 정착한 후 그는 자신이 심은 콩과 야생과일 및 채소로만 식단을 차렸다. 한가할 때에는 콩밭의 잡초를 뽑거나 굶주린 마못으로부터 콩밭을 지켰고, 낚시·수영·뱃놀이를 즐겼으며, 그곳의 식물군과 동물군을 관찰하고 기록하며 독서로 기나긴 시간을 보냈다. 그곳에서 〈콩코드와 메리맥 강에서 보낸 1주일 A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers〉(1849)을 썼고, 이때 쓴 일기는 후에 다듬어서 〈월든：숲속의 생활〉에 포함시켰다. 또한 명상을 하면서 많은 시간을 보냈다.

Out of such activity and thought came Walden, a series of 18 essays describing his experiment in basic living and his effort to set his time free for leisure. Several of the essays provide Thoreau's original perspective on the meaning of work and leisure and describe his experiment in living as simply and self-sufficiently as possible, while in others Thoreau describes the various realities of life at Walden Pond: his intimacy with the small animals he came in contact with; the sounds, smells, and look of woods and water at various seasons; the music of wind in telegraph wires -- in short, the felicities of learning how to fulfill his desire to live as simply and self-sufficiently as possible. The physical act of living day by day at Walden Pond is what gives the book authority, while Thoreau's command of a clear, straightforward, but elegant style helped raise it to the level of a literary classic. (see also "Walden; or, Life in the Woods")

이러한 생활과 생각 속에서 탄생한 〈월든：숲속의 생활〉은 단순한 생활 속에서 경험과 자유롭게 여가를 누리려는 노력을 서술한 18편의 글로 이루어져 있다. 여러 편의 글에서 소로는 노동과 여가에 대해 독창적인 견해를 서술했으며, 가능한 한 단순하고 자족적인 삶을 영위하려 한 자신의 실험적 생활을 보여준다. 다른 글에서는 작은 동물들과의 친교, 계절에 따라 달라지는 숲과 호수의 소리·내음·경치, 전선에 스치는 바람소리 등 월든 호반에서의 다양한 생활을 묘사하면서 단순하고 자족하며 살아가는 방법을 습득해가는 기쁨을 보여준다. 월든 호반에서 실제로 하루하루 살았다는 점 때문에 이 작품에 권위를 더하는 것도 사실이지만 분명하고 직설적이며 세련된 문체야말로 이 작품을 고전의 차원으로 끌어올릴 수 있었다.

Thoreau stayed for two years at Walden Pond (1845-47). In the summer of 1847 Emerson invited him to stay with his wife and children again, while Emerson himself went to Europe. Thoreau accepted. In September 1847 he left his cabin forever.

소로는 월든 호반에서 2년 동안(1845~47) 머물렀다. 그는 1847년 여름 에머슨이 그를 초청해서 가족과 합류시켜 유럽에 가자는 초청을 받아들여 그해 가을 자신의 오두막을 영영 떠나게 되었다.

Midway in his Walden sojourn Thoreau had spent a night in jail. On an evening in July 1846 he was accosted by Sam Staples, the constable and tax gatherer. Sam asked him amiably to pay his poll tax, which he had omitted paying for several years. He declined and Sam locked him up. The next morning a still-unidentified lady, perhaps his aunt, Maria, paid the tax. Thoreau reluctantly emerged, did an errand, and then went huckleberrying. A single night, he decided, was enough to make his point. His point was that he could not support a government that endorsed slavery and waged an imperialist war against Mexico. His defense of the private, individual conscience against the expediency of the majority found expression in his most famous essay, "Civil Disobedience," which was first published in May 1849 under the title "Resistance to Civil Government." The essay received little attention until the 20th century, when it found an eager audience. To many, its message still sounds timely: there is a higher law than the civil one, and the higher law must be followed even if a penalty ensues. So does its consequence: "Under a government which imprisons any unjustly, the true place for a just man is also a prison."

월든 호숫가 생활 당시 소로는 감옥에서 하룻밤을 보낸 적이 있었다. 1846년 7월 어느날 밤에 경관이자 세금징수원인 샘 스테이플스가 그를 끌고가 여러 해 동안 납부하지 않았던 인두세를 낼 것을 정중하게 요청했다. 그가 거절하자 샘은 그를 감금시켰다. 다음날 아침 그의 숙모 마리아로 짐작되는 정체불명의 숙녀가 세금을 내주어 풀려난 사건이 있었다. 그는 자신의 입장을 정리하는 데 하룻밤이면 충분하다고 생각했다. 노예제를 묵인하고 멕시코와 제국주의 전쟁을 일으킨 정부를 지지할 수 없다는 것이 그의 입장이었다. 1849년 5월에 출판된 그의 가장 유명한 평론 〈시민의 반항〉에서는 다수의 편의주의에 맞서 개인의 양심을 옹호했다. 당시 그것은 무시당했으나 19세기말경 새롭게 인정받기 시작했고, 20세기 중반에는 열렬한 독자들이 나타났다. 민법보다 더 우위의 법이 존재하므로 설령 벌을 받더라도 이 법을 따라야 한다는 그의 주장은 많은 사람들에게 여전히 타당한 것으로 여겨진다. 이 글의 결론은 "어느 한 사람이라도 부당하게 투옥하는 정부 밑에서 의로운 사람이 진정 있어야 할 장소는 감옥"이라는 것이다.

Later life and works.

When Thoreau left Walden, he passed the peak of his career, and his life lost much of its illumination. Slowly his Transcendentalism drained away as he turned surveyor in order to support himself. He collected botanical specimens for himself and reptilian ones for Harvard, jotting down their descriptions in his journal. He established himself in his neighbourhood as a sound man with rod and transit, and he spent more of his time in the family business; after his father's death he took it over entirely. Thoreau made excursions to the Maine woods, to Cape Cod, and to Canada, using his experiences on the trips as raw material for three series of magazine articles: "Ktaadn [sic] and the Maine Woods," in The Union Magazine in 1848; "Excursion to Canada," in Putnam's Monthly in 1853; and "Cape Cod," in Putnam's in 1855. These works present Thoreau's zest for outdoor adventure and his appreciation of the natural environment that had for so long sustained his own spirit.

말년과 작품

월든을 떠나면서 소로의 황금기는 막을 내리고 황혼기를 맞게 되었다. 생계를 위해 감정사로 변신하면서 초월주의도 서서히 사그라들었다. 그는 자신의 몫으로 식물 표본, 하버드대학교를 위해 파충류 표본을 수집하면서 그 자세한 사항을 일기에 기록했다. 이웃사람들은 그를 지팡이와 측량기를 가지고 다니는 음향효과 담당자로 생각했다. 아버지가 죽은 뒤 완전히 인수받은 가업에 더많은 시간을 할애하고, 메인 숲, 케이프코드·캐나다로 여행하면서 얻은 소재로 잡지에 3편의 글을 발표했다. 〈유니온 매거진 The Union Magazine〉에 〈식과 메인 숲 Ktaadn(sic) and the Maine Woods〉(1848), 〈퍼트냄스 먼슬리 Putnam's Monthly〉에 〈캐나다 여행 Excursion to Canada〉(1853)·〈케이프코드 Cape Cod〉(1855)를 실었다. 이 작품들에서는 외부세계 탐험에 대한 소로의 열망과 그의 영혼을 그토록 오랫동안 지탱해준 자연환경에 대한 찬사를 볼 수 있다.

As Thoreau became less of a Transcendentalist he became more of an activist--above all, a dedicated Abolitionist. As much as anyone in Concord, he helped to speed fleeing slaves north on the so-called Underground Railroad. He lectured and wrote against slavery, with "Slavery in Massachusetts," a lecture delivered in 1854, as his hardest indictment. In the Abolitionist John Brown he found a father figure beside whom Emerson paled; the fiery old fanatic became his ideal. By now Thoreau was in poor health, and when Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry failed and he was hanged, Thoreau suffered a psychic shock that probably hastened his own death. He died, apparently of tuberculosis, in 1862.

소로는 초월주의에서 벗어나 실천적인 노예폐지론자가 되었다. 콩코드의 다른 이들과 마찬가지로 이른바 지하철도를 통해 북쪽으로 도망가는 노예들을 도우면서 노예제에 반대하는 강연을 하고 글을 썼다. 1854년에 행한 강연 〈매사추세츠의 노예제 Slavery in Massachusetts〉는 가장 신랄한 고발이었다. 그는 노예폐지론자 존 브라운에게서 에머슨에 못지 않은 다감한 아버지상을 발견했고, 이 나이든 열광자가 소로의 이상이 되었다. 점차 건강이 나빠진 소로는 브라운이 하퍼스 페리 마을 습격을 주동했다가 실패해 처형당하자 정신적인 충격을 받았으며, 이것이 그의 죽음을 재촉한 것으로 보인다. 1862년 결핵으로 죽었다.

Assessment.

To all appearances, Thoreau lived a life of bleak failure. His neighbours viewed him with familiarity verging on contempt. He had to pay for the printing of A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers; when it sold a mere 220 copies, the publishers dumped the remaining 700 on his doorstep. Walden (the second and last of his books published during his lifetime) fared less badly but still took five years to sell 2,000 copies. And yet Thoreau is now regarded as both a classic American writer and a cultural hero of his country. The present opinion of his greatness stems from the power of his principal ideas and the lucid, provocative writing with which he expressed them.

평가

겉으로 보면 소로는 쓸쓸한 실패의 삶을 살았다. 이웃사람들과 너무 허물 없이 지내 체면을 잃을 정도였다. 〈콩코드와 메리맥 강에서 보낸 1주일〉이 220부밖에 안 팔리자 출판업자는 나머지 700권을 그의 문 앞에 쌓아놓았고 그는 출판비용을 물어야 했다. 그의 생전에 출판된 2번째이자 마지막 책 〈월든：숲속의 생활〉은 판매사정이 그보다는 나았으나 2,000부가 팔리는 데 5년이나 걸렸다. 그러나 지금 소로는 미국의 고전작가이자 문화적 영웅으로 추앙받는다. 그를 위대하다고 보는 현재의 평가는 그의 기본사상이 지닌 힘과 그것들을 표현해내는 명료하고도 자극적인 필체에서 비롯된다.

Thoreau's two famous symbolic actions, his two years in the cabin at Walden Pond and his night in jail for civil disobedience, represent his personal enactment of the doctrines of New England Transcendentalism as expressed by his friend and associate Emerson, among others. In his writings Thoreau was concerned primarily with the possibilities for human culture provided by the American natural environment. He adapted ideas garnered from the then-current Romantic literatures in order to extend American libertarianism and individualism beyond the political and religious spheres to those of social and personal life. "The life which men praise and regard as successful is but one kind. Why," Thoreau asked in Walden, where his example was the answer, "should we exaggerate any one kind at the expense of the others?" In a commercial, conservative, expedient society that was rapidly becoming urban and industrial, he upheld the right to self-culture, to an individual life shaped by inner principle. He demanded for all men the freedom to follow unique lifestyles, to make poems of their lives and living itself an art. In a restless, expanding society dedicated to practical action, he demonstrated the uses and values of leisure, contemplation, and a harmonious appreciation of and coexistence with nature. Thoreau established the tradition of nature writing later developed by the Americans John Burroughs and John Muir, and his pioneer study of the human uses of nature profoundly influenced such conservationists and regional planners as Benton MacKaye and Lewis Mumford. More important, his life, so fully expressed in his writing, has had a pervasive influence because it was an example of moral heroism and an example of the continuing search for a spiritual dimension in American life.

Major Works

MAJOR WORKS. The most significant and enduring works by Thoreau are listed here in order of original publication; when he made substantial revisions, especially in the essays, the volumes in which the revised versions first appeared are likewise noted:

"Ktaadn and the Maine Woods" (1848; revised and expanded in The Maine Woods, 1864); A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers (1849); "Resistance to Civil Government" (1849; republished as "Civil Disobedience" in A Yankee in Canada, 1866); Walden (1854); "The Last Days of John Brown" (1860; republished in A Yankee in Canada); "Walking" (1862; republished in Excursions, 1863); "Life Without Principle" (1863; republished in A Yankee in Canada); and Faith in a Seed: The Dispersion of Seeds and Other Late Natural History Writings (posthumously, 1993).

The Writings of Henry Thoreau, 20 vol. (1906, reprinted 1982), is the standard "Walden" edition of Thoreau's books, essays, and journal. It is being replaced by the Princeton Edition of The Writings of Henry D. Thoreau (starting in 1971 with the publication of its version of Walden) which is producing books of high textual and editorial quality. Collected Poems, ed. by Carl Bode, enlarged ed. (1964, reissued 1970), brings together the many versions of the poetry he wrote, particularly in his younger days.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

The definitive life is Walter Harding, The Days of Henry Thoreau, 2nd ed. (1982, reissued 1992). Its still-useful predecessor is Henry Seidel Canby, Thoreau (1939, reprinted 1965). The Correspondence of Henry David Thoreau, ed. by Walter Harding and Carl Bode (1958, reprinted 1974), contains not only all the letters by Thoreau available when the edition was compiled but the letters to him as well. Richard Lebeaux, Young Man Thoreau (1977), and Thoreau's Seasons (1984), are applications of psychoanalytic-sociological theory to Thoreau's life and family relationships. Other biographical studies include William Howarth, The Book of Concord: Thoreau's Life as a Writer (1982); Walter Harding and Michael Meyer, The New Thoreau Handbook (1980); Robert D. Richardson, Jr., Henry Thoreau: A Life of the Mind (1986); and Bob Pepperman Taylor, America's Bachelor Uncle: Thoreau and the American Polity (1996). Good general critical studies are Sherman Paul, The Shores of America: Thoreau's Inward Exploration (1958, reissued 1972); Wendell Glick (compiler), The Recognition of Henry David Thoreau: Selected Criticism Since 1848 (1969); William J. Wolf, Thoreau: Mystic, Prophet, Ecologist (1974); and Richard J. Schneider, Henry David Thoreau (1987). The prime studies of Walden alone are Charles R. Anderson, The Magic Circle of Walden (1968); Stanley Cavell, The Senses of Walden, expanded ed. (1981, reissued 1992); and Joel Myerson (ed.), Critical Essays on Henry David Thoreau's Walden (1988).

• 저서
  • 월든 : H. D. 소로, 강승영 역, 이레, 1993
  • 시민의 반항(범우문고 75) : H. D. 소로, 황문수 역, 범우사, 1989
• 연구서
  • 개고 미국문학사 : 김병철, 한신문화사, 1992
  • 미국문학사 : R. E. 스필러, 장왕록 역, 일신사, 1989
  • 헨리 데이비드 소로의 월든연구 : 장정남, 연세대학교 박사학위논문, 1985
  • 헨리 소로- 월든의 재미 〈미국인의 선택〉 : 장정남, 문학과 지성사, 1982
  • 헨리 데이비드 소로의 문학관〈청주여사대 논문집〉 11 : 노창식, 청주여자사범대학교, 1982
  • 헨리 소로의 월든에 나타난 공자의 영향-공자의 인용구를 중심하여 〈영어영문학〉 50 : 장정남, 한국영어영문학회, 1974

[ 홈 ] [ Introduction ] [ Thoreau's Walden ] [ Maine Woods ] [ Cape Cod ] [ Thoreau's Civil Disobedience ] [ Life Without Principle ] [ Slavery in Massachusetts ] [ A Plea for Captain John Brown ] [ Thoreau's Walking ] [ Thoreau's World ] [ Transcendentalism ]